Icons under threat: Why monitoring visitors and their ecological impacts in protected areas matters

Summary   Visitation levels are on the rise in protected areas throughout the world. In response, many icon sites are showing signs of overuse and more protected-area managers report tourism and recreation as threats to sustainable management. Clearly, there is a growing need to assess (monitor) and manage visitors to mitigate their impacts. In this paper, we articulate why targeted visitor-impact monitoring matters and highlight how existing monitoring programmes fail to deliver the necessary information to protected-area managers. We suggest that the availability and quality of visitor data are currently insufficient to facilitate the development of proactive management strategies in most protected areas. We call for more scale-sensitive (time and space) collection of visitor load and environmental (response) data. Specifically, since icon sites (like waterfalls and mountain peaks) are the focus of visitor motivations and activities, we highlight the case for proactive assessment, management and reporting of condition at these sites. Ultimately, visitor trends will be influenced by visitor management. If visitor activities degrade the icon, the financial benefits of tourism and recreation to a protected area may not be sustainable. In addition, the conservation and protection objectives of the protected area will also not be met.     

基于多类型自然保护地整合优化的国家公园综合监测体系构建

随着我国自然保护事业进入新时代,以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系建设思路得以明确,以国家公园为代表的自然保护地监测工作也被赋予了更高的要求。监测在促进国家公园科学规划与管理中发挥着重要作用,国家公园管理目标的实现离不开可靠的监测数据和信息的支撑。我国的国家公园试点由各类型自然保护地整合设立,因此面临不同监测类型之间的整合,存在缺乏统一的监测指标体系、有效的监测数据管理、健全的监测实施机制等问题。在对各类型自然保护地整合优化的基本思路下,基于国外国家公园监测实践与经验,综合考虑我国自然保护地的监测现状和需求,从顶层设计出发,构建了以自然资源清查为基础、以生态监测为核心、以自然与人为干扰监测为辅助、以管理有效性监测为补充并服务管理有效性评价的国家公园综合监测体系。在此基础上,进一步提出由三级监测网络、监测数据管理、管理有效性评价三部分组成的国家公园监测实施机制。在国家公园监测体系构建方面进行了探索与尝试,以期为我国国家公园监测体系以及监测制度的建立提供有益参考。     

Using geotagged photographs and GIS analysis to estimate visitor flows in natural areas

Protected area management requires detailed information about visitors’ travel patterns. Unfortunately, methods commonly applied to obtain this information (e.g. monitoring, simulation) are expensive and time consuming. As a result, for many protected areas worldwide there are no reliable data upon which management actions (e.g. trail maintenance, introduction of use limits) can be based. Today georeferenced material shared on the Internet (e.g. geotagged photographs, GPS tracks) provides a new valuable source of information about people's movements, though its low density (e.g. few geotagged photographs per unit area) in natural areas has discouraged applications in such contexts so far. We propose a new approach that uses geotagged photographs to identify popular locations, and a gravity model to estimate the volume of visitor flows from access points (e.g. parking lots, bus stops) to those locations. The model, which assumes volumes to be proportional to the popularity of access points and destinations, and inversely proportional to the travel time for going from one to the other, is set up in a GIS environment and calibrated by means of actual visitor counts over a set of locations in the study area.Results of a first application to the Dolomites UNESCO World Heritage Site (Italy) are encouraging as the model provided good estimates and a consistent map of visitor flows. The method enables park managers to roughly estimate visitor flows over large trail networks with only limited field work required. Future applications may include the analysis of off-trail movements to predict the intensity of trampling.     

基于PSR模型的国家公园综合灾害风险评估指标体系构建

灾害会对社会-生态系统产生严重影响,造成重大的社会、经济、环境等方面的损失,科学地对灾害风险进行评估是进行防灾减灾的基础工作。自然保护地是区域灾害风险管理热点地区,在国家公园体制试点建设与自然保护地体系改革中,国家公园作为保护重要生态系统并保障全民公益性的重要的自然保护地类型之一,管理目标的多样性,决定了其具有多风险源-多受体的灾害风险特征,因此,进行全面有效的灾害风险评估是支持国家公园生态系统管理、游客管理、社区管理等具体管理目标的必要环节。在明确国家公园灾害风险的特征与内涵的基础上,以国际减灾署灾害风险定量评估框架为依据,细分灾害风险源和风险受体,然后针对国家公园不同类型的灾害风险受体,以灾害风险源的危险性与灾害风险受体的脆弱性(包含敏感性、暴露性和适应性)衡量灾害风险度,结合压力-状态-响应(Pressure-State-Response, PSR)模型,构建了适用于国家公园综合灾害风险管理的评估指标体系,旨在为国家公园的灾害风险管理提供理论基础和科学依据,服务于国家公园多元化管理目标。     

Monitoring for management of conservation and recreation in Australian protected areas

Protected areas are key to conservation of biodiversity, and Australia is one of the world’s megadiverse regions. Monitoring programs provide the information to assess the state of conservation resources, the severity of threats and the success of management responses. Here we compare the management priorities, monitoring priorities and actual monitoring practices of protected area management agencies in Australia, using four sets of data at continental scale and five at a more restricted regional scale. We track changes over a period of several years and focus at successively finer levels of detail. At both continental and regional scales, most management plans emphasise fire, invasive species and visitor management; and most monitoring programmes refer to visitor numbers and impacts as well as species and ecosystems. There is only a weak match, however, between reported management priorities and actual monitoring programmes; and the effectiveness of management responses is rarely monitored. The level of detail in visitor monitor programmes varies considerably: most parks count visitors, but few know what those visitors do. Threats from fire and invasive species receive more attention that those from recreation. At regional scale, the proportion of parks with defined monitoring programmes and priorities increased significantly from 2003/2004 to 2006/2007. Whilst only a proportion of protected areas monitor endangered species populations, for those that do this is the parameter reported in most detail, with many parks reporting single records of single individuals. Some parks also maintain anecdotal records of rare species outside routine monitoring programs.     

Ranger Based Monitoring in the Virunga–Bwindi Region of East-Central Africa: A Simple Data Collection Tool for Park Management

Effective management of protected areas is dependent on information on the illegal and legal use of the habitat by people, the ecological and behavioural needs of key species, and trends in resource availability and ecological processes. The International Gorilla Conservation Programme working with the protected area authorities in Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo has developed a ranger based monitoring system, using basic protocols for data collection that guide protected area staff in park management. This programme is a key management tool for the three park authorities responsible for the conservation of the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) in the Virunga and Bwindi forest blocks. The programme was initiated in 1997 and has enabled the gathering of extensive information on illegal activities, key species of fauna and flora, and habituated and unhabituated groups of gorillas. Ranger based monitoring is a simple and cost effective tool that can be sustained in the parks in the Virunga–Bwindi region with limited external support. It provides park managers with information that prompts appropriate responses to threats to the ecosystem. For example information on the distribution of illegal activities determines targeted patrol coverage to address specific threats. The bottom-up approach of ranger based monitoring includes a strong capacity building component and empowers field staff in park management activities.     

Measuring ungulate tolerance to human with flight distance: a reliable visitor management tool?

Tourist-induced behavioural changes in large vertebrates are of concern for protected area management as they trigger a trade-off: large vertebrates attract visitors, but induced behavioral changes can reduce animal fitness and cause animals to avoid tourist-frequented zones. Behavioural response of animals to tourists is often studied to ensure informed management decision-making, a task frequently supported by flight distance analysis. In this context, guanaco (Lama guanicoe) response to tourists was studied in a protected area using two complementary methods: flight distance and sighting frequency analyses. Flight response analyses show that guanacos develop a considerable tolerance to vehicles and pedestrians in tourist areas, a reaction that extends approximately 500 m around visited areas. Such analyses thus point to (i) few areas being underused as a consequence of human presence and (ii) a low risk of tame animals being poached outside the park, all potentially leading to the conclusion that tourist visits are sustainable. However, guanaco sighting frequencies during 107 fieldwork days along 3 years show a significant reduction in sightings on days with higher Park visitor numbers. Moreover we present a formal procedure for the definition of a threshold for this to happen (247 visitors/day in our case). This suggests the potential risk of negative effects on guanaco population and a lower probability of guanaco sightings if Park visitor numbers rise beyond current figures. Results allow to conclude that assessment of human disturbance to flagship species in protected areas requires further methods in addition to flight distance.     

Visitor monitoring methods for managing public use pressures in the Danube Floodplains National Park, Austria

National parks in close proximity to large urban areas, such as the Danube Floodplains National Park near Vienna, need an intensive monitoring of recreational use due to the high number of visitors and the highly fragmented natural settings. Visitors in the National Park were monitored using an approach that integrated long-term video monitoring, counts by human observers, specific visitor interviews and route analysis by the application of GIS tools. The combination of monitoring and survey data allows a thorough analysis of public use patterns, as illustrated by a case study of dog walkers in the park. Results demonstrate the value of integrated monitoring approaches, and serve as a basis for improved sustainable management of the Danube Floodplains National Park.     

中国自然保护地体系分类研究

建设自然保护地体系是为子孙后代保留生物多样性资源与自然遗产最有效的途径。自1956年我国建立第一个自然保护区以来,已建设形成覆盖森林、草地、湿地、海洋、荒漠各类生态系统,珍稀濒危动植物物种和种质资源,自然遗迹和自然景观,以及水源保护等各类自然保护地。但由于缺乏自然保护地体系的顶层设计,各类保护地面临功能区分不清晰、空间重叠、管理成效不高等问题。建设以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系的部署,为理顺我国保护地体系,明确各类保护地的功能定位提供了难得的机会。在分析我国现有自然保护地类型,并参考国际自然保护地体系分类经验的基础上,探讨了我国保护地体系分类,建议将我国自然保护地分为5大类,第I类为自然保护区,第Ⅱ类为国家公园,第Ⅲ类为自然公园,第Ⅳ类为物种与种质资源保护区,第Ⅴ类为生态功能保护区,并分析了各类自然保护地的功能定位和管理目标,以期为自然保护地体系规划建设提供参考。完善我国自然保护地体系分类,根据各类保护地的特点,创新保护地建设政策与机制,加大政府对自然保护地建设力度的同时,发挥全社会力量建设自然保护地,我国自然保护地建设将大有可为。     

Recreation ecology research in East Asia's protected areas: Redefining impacts?

Recreation ecology, the scientific study of visitor impacts and their effective management, has been developed largely in North America, Europe, and more recently in Australia, in response to growing impacts of visitor use to protected area resources. A body of literature has been accumulated that contributes to sustainable visitor management in protected areas. This paper traces the development of recreation ecology research in East Asia and examines the field's relevance to East Asia's protected natural areas which endure both a long history of human utilisation and contemporary recreation and tourism pressure, much of which originates from surrounding densely populated urban areas. The formative, expanding and strengthening stages of recreation ecology research in this region were identified through an extensive review of literature published in English and East Asian languages. Each of these three developmental stages was illustrated with examples and compared with the general state of research during the same period. Key challenges and opportunities for future recreation ecology research in the region are discussed in light of this review.     

A simple system for monitoring biodiversity in protected areas of a developing country

The achievements of initiatives to strengthen biodiversity conservation in developing countries may be difficult to assess, since most countries have no system for monitoring biodiversity. This paper describes a simple and cost-effective, field-based biodiversity monitoring system developed specifically for areas where specialist staff is lacking. We discuss the preliminary lessons learned from protected areas in the Philippines. Whilst the monitoring system aims to identify trends in biodiversity and its uses so as to guide management action, it also promotes the participation of local people in the management, stimulates discussions about conservation amongst stakeholders and builds the capacity of park staff and communities in management skills. In addition, it seeks to provide people with direction regarding the aims of protected areas, and reinforces the consolidation of existing livelihoods through strengthening community-based resource management systems. The field methods are: (1) standardised recording of routine observations, (2) fixed point photographing, (3) line transect survey, and (4) focus group discussion. Both bio-physical and socio-economic data are used and given equal importance. The system can be sustained using locally available resources. The approach is useful in countries embarking on shared management of park resources with local communities, where rural people depend on use of natural ecosystems, and where the economic resources for park management are limited. We hope this paper will encourage other countries to develop their own biodiversity monitoring system, letting its development become a means for capacity building whilst at the same time supporting the creation of ownership.     

The science of visitor management in parks and protected areas: from verbal reports to simulation models

Visitor management in parks, wilderness and other protected areas requires information about visitor-environment interactions and, particularly, the distribution and flow of visitors in space and time. Such information is usually sketchy and based largely on the verbal reports of visitors. A review of recent psychological and neurological research and theory suggests that traditional verbal survey methods cannot in principle provide an adequate basis for models of human landscape navigation. We argue for more use of direct observation of visitor movements and the utility of travel simulation models. Simulation modelling of visitor flow can be helpful in making monitoring programs more efficient, in fine-tuning existing management programs, and in assessing the likely consequences of alternative future scenarios We review early efforts to simulate the flow of recreation use, describe several current modelling efforts and conclude with suggestions for a research and development effort.     

基于爱知生物多样性目标11的我国自然保护地管理有效性评估进展与分析

本文基于我国相关政府部门、国际机构、科研机构和文献关于我国自然保护地管理有效性评估数据, 梳理和分析了我国针对爱知生物多样性目标11的自然保护地管理有效性评估的进展情况。结果显示, 我国已按时完成了爱知生物多样性目标11中2015年之前对60%以上自然保护地管理有效性评估的指标; 目前已开展管理有效性评估的自然保护地面积达136.19万km², 占我国自然保护地面积(186.60万km²)的72.99%; 我国自然保护地管理有效性受多方关注。本研究调查数据与世界自然保护地数据库、自然保护地管理有效性全球数据库的数据差异较大; 我国自然保护地管理有效性评估工具多样, 各类型自然保护地管理有效性评估工作进展差异显著, 管理有效性评估标准化和连续性有待提高。最后, 提出了如下建议: 加强自然保护地整体性和连通性; 参考世界自然保护区委员会的评估框架和世界自然保护联盟自然保护地绿色名录标准, 按照国家公园、自然保护区和自然公园分类制定管理有效性评估规范并将评估制度化; 有效利用评估结果促进我国自然保护地建设的标准化、科学化并建立激励机制等。     

中国大陆自然保护地概况及分类体系构想

自1956年我国建立第一个自然保护区以来, 截至2016年底, 我国已建立了约10种类型且数量庞大的自然保护地。随着我国生态文明建设的不断发展,建立以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系不仅是国家提出的重要任务,也是我国自然保护地未来发展的必然趋势。然而, 由于我国目前各类自然保护地尚无统一的分类体系, 已有的自然保护地之间存在着概念界定不清、分类体系混乱、主导功能模糊、地理空间重叠等诸多问题。这不仅严重阻碍了我国现有自然保护地的优化整合和国家公园体制建设,而且不便于开展国际交流。因此迫切需要明确自然保护地的定义, 建立一套适用于我国且有利于国际交流的自然保护地分类体系。本文在介绍自然保护地的概念与内涵,以及我国10类自然保护地建设和分类体系现状的基础上,重点梳理了我国自然保护地的发展历程, 比较了各类自然保护地的定义、内涵以及主要分类依据,并提出了3种能够涵盖目前各类自然保护地的分类体系构想,它们分别基于IUCN保护区分类系统、保护对象自然属性和管理目标社会属性。希望这些构想能在未来自然保护地分类体系的研究中起到抛砖引玉的作用。     

大熊猫国家公园的地栖大中型鸟兽多样性现状: 基于红外相机数据的分析

生物多样性监测是国家公园保护的核心基础。大熊猫国家公园是我国首批5个国家公园之一, 系统的保护规划与有效的管理行动均有赖于对区内生物多样性本底、现状与动态的深入了解。为了解大熊猫国家公园范围内兽类与鸟类多样性本底与现状, 本研究系统检索了该区域内2005-2020年基于红外相机调查技术的野生动物研究论文、项目报告以及新闻报道, 并对区内原有保护地的红外相机监测历史与结果进行了问卷调查。结果表明, 2005-2020年期间, 在大熊猫国家公园范围内51个保护地的红外相机调查与监测中, 共记录到分属6目22科55属的71种野生兽类与分属13目45科132属的232种野生鸟类。在国家公园所覆盖的秦岭、岷山、邛崃山、相岭4大山系中, 邛崃和岷山记录到的大中型地栖鸟兽物种多样性最高(均为兽类40种, 鸟类12种), 相岭最低(兽类25种, 鸟类7种)。单个保护地中记录到的大中型地栖鸟兽物种数量与保护地面积、红外相机有效工作日及相机位点的海拔跨度均呈正相关, 国家级保护地中记录到的物种数(28 ± 8.3, mean ± SD)显著高于省级保护地(19 ± 8.9)。在大熊猫国家公园内共记录到猫科与犬科的4种大型食肉动物, 即豹(Panthera pardus)、雪豹(P. uncia)、狼(Canis lupus)和豺(Cuon alpinus), 主要来自于秦岭山系和邛崃山系, 而国家公园内的岷山山系则没有记录到大型食肉动物, 相岭山系中仅有1次狼的记录。本研究结果显示, 大熊猫国家公园内前期已经建立起的自然保护地网络与红外相机监测体系已积累大量区内野生兽类与鸟类的基础数据, 为国家公园的试点与建设提供了生物多样性编目与监测方面的可靠本底。在这些前期工作的基础上, 大熊猫国家公园应进一步规划、建设标准化的野生动物监测体系, 为今后国家公园的管理决策、成效评估提供坚实的科学支撑。     

Neglect of biological riches: the economics of nature tourism in Nepal

Nepal's spectacular parks and reserves have attracted dramatically increasing numbers of foreign visitors. It might be expected that these protected areas would be nurtured as valuable and irreplaceable economic assets. However they are becoming seriously degraded and the financial resources provided for their management have been inadequate. This paper explores why — starting with the hypothesis that so little of the economic value of protected area tourism in Nepal is captured through fees and other charges assessed on foreign visitors that the protected areas are perceived as being of inconsequential value. It is conservatively estimated that $27 million of tourists' total expenditure in Nepal were attributable to the protected area network in 1988, when the costs of managing the parks were less than $5 million but direct fees colleeted from tourists visiting the protected areas amounted to less than $1 million. These figures suggest the parks are a good investment. But it could also be argued that the costs of park management were more than five times the revenues collected by the government from park tourists. Policy measures are identified which could help Nepal increase the economic as well as environmental benefits from nature tourism.Case studies of Nepal's most-visited protected areas emphasize that the lack of funds for protected area management is not the only constraint on effective management. Some important economic and institutional interests have yet to be effectively reconciled with conservation in the protected areas. Most problematic are local people's economic aspirations and the operating practices of the principal government agencies involved — the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and the Ministry of Tourism. Fortunately there have recently been some encouraging signs of change within both of these agencies.     

国家尺度自然保护地生态系统联网监测指标体系构建与应用研究

自然保护地是维护国家生态安全, 提升生物多样性保护成效的重要载体, 对保护地生态系统进行实时、高频、多尺度的监测是认知其动态变化的有效手段, 也是实现自然保护地生态系统健康管理的基石。由于目前我国没有形成自然保护地生态系统监测网络, 缺少统一的联网监测指标体系, 导致多数自然保护地生态系统组成家底不清、动态不明, 应对生物多样性保护新问题的能力不足, 并且在国家尺度上的自然保护地生态系统健康状况及保护成效评估缺乏联网监测数据支撑。因此, 亟需构建国家尺度的自然保护地生态系统组成和动态监测网络, 以及一套科学、系统、规范的自然保护地生态系统联网监测指标体系。该文针对自然保护地生物多样性和生态系统监测的目标和内容, 参考国内外现有的生态系统监测网络的指标体系, 确定了自然保护地生态系统联网监测指标体系建立和选取的基本原则, 建立了一套适用于国家尺度的自然保护地生态系统联网监测指标体系, 并在6个国家级自然保护区进行示范。构建的指标体系针对构成生态系统的6类关键要素(生境要素、生物要素、气象要素、土壤要素、大气和水环境要素、景观要素)制定了30个监测指标, 有效应用于森林、草地、荒漠、湿地等生态系统类型的自然保护地, 能够实现对不同类型自然保护地生态系统组分和结构的现状和演变特征进行长期、动态化监测, 并可为自然保护地保护成效评估和健康管理提供规范化、标准化的基础数据。     

贵州省国家公园选址及其植物多样性保育研究

贵州省生态资源丰富,建立国家公园有利于集中规范化管理生态资源。为了分析贵州省国家级自然保护地的空间分布特征,筛选出优势景观资源聚集区作为国家公园候选区,该文借助ArcGis空间分析工具对现有的5类113处保护地进行空间分布特征分析,筛选出国家公园试点候选区并对其进行资源评价。结果表明：(1)贵州省国家级自然保护地总体呈凝聚型分布,重叠度高,将保护地聚集区作为景观优势聚集区划定了8个国家公园试点候选区。(2)通过对聚集区主要代表性资源分析和专家评分得出,分值排在前列的聚集区可以考虑作为国家公园试点区进行推荐,分值最高的赤水-习水区可优先选为国家公园试点区。(3)赤水-习水区资源的国家代表性、适宜性、国有性和社会可行性等,满足设立国家公园优先整合交叉重叠保护地的基本原则,其植物多样性保育价值重大。该研究结果为国家公园的选址提供了新的思路,并为以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系建立以及国家公园植物多样性保育提供了参考依据。     

Protected areas for the 21st century: working to provide benefits to society

Since the first national park was created at Yellowstone in the USA in 1872, over 8500 protected areas have been established worldwide. Virtually all countries have seen the wisdom of protecting areas of outstanding importance to society, and such sites now cover over 5% of Earth's land surface. However, many of these protected areas exist only on paper, not on the ground. Most are suffering from a combination of threats, including pollution, over-exploitation, encroachment, poaching, and many others. In a period of growing demands on resources and shrinking government budgets, new approaches are required to ensure that protected areas can continue to make their contributions to society. First and foremost, protected areas must be designed and managed in order to provide tangible and intangible benefits to society. This will involve integrating protected areas into larger planning and management frameworks, linking protected areas to biodiversity and climate change, promoting greater financial support for protected areas, and expanding international cooperation in the finance, development and management of protected areas.     

A tool set for description and mapping vegetation on protected natural areas: an example from the Canary Islands

The Canary Islands belong to Mediterranean basin hotspot, especially because their rich endemic flora. Nearly 40% of the total archipelago area is protected through protected natural area network. However, some plant communities show high degree of disturbance or they develop in unprotected zones. So, multivariate analysis combined with vegetation mapping can be useful for identify, describe and protect the main plant communities. These tools have been applied in Caldera de Taburiente national park (La Palma. Canary Islands). An actual vegetation map of this park is showed and its major natural vegetation units are described. These tools could be applied to other protected and unprotected areas, especially for planning, management and conservation purposes.