The Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae (Diptera) of New Zealand’s subantarctic islands

Abstract

A taxonomic study of midges collected in the subantarctic islands of New Zealand yielded 22 species of Chironomidae and 4 of Ceratopogonidae. Only four of the chironomids occur elsewhere, three on ‘mainland’ New Zealand and one on The Snares islands. Of the 15 species found on the Auckland Islands, 11 on Campbell Island, and 5 on the Antipodes Islands, respectively 9, 4, and 2 are endemic. Nine new species are proposed in existing genera: Parochlus rennelli, P. reductus, P. gressitti, P. brevis, Telmatogeton antipodensis, Eukiefferiella heveli, Cricotopus aucklandensis, Chironomus antipodensis, and C. subantarcticus. Gressittius n.gen. is proposed for Corethra antarctica Hudson (type-species). Semiocladius n.gen. is proposed for Camptocladius crassipennis Skuse, and S. kuscheli n.sp. is described. Eight further new genera are proposed, with the following new species as type-species: Kuschelius dentifer, Mecaorus elongatus, Pterosis wisei, Hevelius carinatus, Gynnidocladius pilulus, Nesiocladius gressitti, Nakataia cisdentifer, and Maryella reducta. Genera Halirytus Eaton and Psamathiomya Deby are synonymised with Telmatogeton Schiner. Gressittius antarcticus (Hudson), Ablabesmyia mala (Hutton), Telmatogeton magellanicus (Jacobs), T. amphibius (Eaton), T. macquariensis (Brundin), Semiocladius crassipennis (Skuse), S. endocladiae (Tokunaga), and Calopsectra funebris (Freeman) are new combinations. Of the ceratopogonids, only one species occurs elsewhere in New Zealand. Three species, only one of them endemic, were found on the Auckland Islands; two were found on Campbell, of which only one is endemic. Forcipomyia kuscheli and Dasyhelea aucklandensis are proposed as new species.     

Adaptive Multi-scale Sampling to Determine an Invasive Crab’s Habitat Usage and Range in New Zealand

Patterns of local abundance and geographical distribution are often prime correlates of invasive species’ impacts on native ecosystems. Here we adaptively increased the spatial scale of delimitation surveys to determine the local abundance, range and habitat associations of the introduced portunid Charybdis japonica (Milne-Edwards, 1861) in New Zealand. The crab was first discovered in Auckland’s Waitemata Harbour in September 2000, and by April 2002 trapping surveys revealed the invader had spread widely throughout the Harbour. Experiments using three deployment times (1, 3 and 24 h) optimized detection rates prior to larger scale geographic surveys that defined the range of the introduced population. We surveyed >300 sites in coastal waters within the predicted range of larval dispersal and then 14 major shipping ports throughout New Zealand. C. japonica was abundant in the Waitemata Harbour and present in two nearby estuaries, but there was no evidence of spread to other shipping ports nationwide. Subtidal habitat associations were explored in the main area of infestation which indicated that the invader occupied a range of substrata from fine, silty muds to coarse, shelly sands. Although its distribution overlaps with the native portunid crab Ovalipes catharus, the invader was more abundant throughout Waitemata Harbour and occurred in muddy sediments where native portunids are rare. It is not yet clear whether the C. japonica population in New Zealand is self-sustaining, however if it persists and continues to spread, it is likely to have significant impacts on native estuarine benthic assemblages.     

Evaluation of New Zealand’s High-Seas Bottom Trawl Closures Using Predictive Habitat Models and Quantitative Risk Assessment

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 61/105 on sustainable fisheries (UNGA 2007) establishes three difficult questions for participants in high-seas bottom fisheries to answer: 1) Where are vulnerable marine systems (VMEs) likely to occur?; 2) What is the likelihood of fisheries interaction with these VMEs?; and 3) What might qualify as adequate conservation and management measures to prevent significant adverse impacts? This paper develops an approach to answering these questions for bottom trawling activities in the Convention Area of the South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organisation (SPRFMO) within a quantitative risk assessment and cost : benefit analysis framework. The predicted distribution of deep-sea corals from habitat suitability models is used to answer the first question. Distribution of historical bottom trawl effort is used to answer the second, with estimates of seabed areas swept by bottom trawlers being used to develop discounting factors for reduced biodiversity in previously fished areas. These are used in a quantitative ecological risk assessment approach to guide spatial protection planning to address the third question. The coral VME likelihood (average, discounted, predicted coral habitat suitability) of existing spatial closures implemented by New Zealand within the SPRFMO area is evaluated. Historical catch is used as a measure of cost to industry in a cost : benefit analysis of alternative spatial closure scenarios. Results indicate that current closures within the New Zealand SPRFMO area bottom trawl footprint are suboptimal for protection of VMEs. Examples of alternative trawl closure scenarios are provided to illustrate how the approach could be used to optimise protection of VMEs under chosen management objectives, balancing protection of VMEs against economic loss to commercial fishers from closure of historically fished areas.     

Feeding activity in captive New Zealand lesser short‐tailed bats (Mystacina tuberculata)

Abstract

Lesser short‐tailed bats (Mystacina tuberculata) have been reported as commonly feeding on the ground, but few direct observations of the diet and foraging behaviour of these rare and secretive bats have been published. Here, we describe the feeding behaviour of six captive M. tuberculata at Wellington Zoological Gardens, in order to experimentally clarify and validate some of the feeding behaviours previously reported from anecdotal observations. In particular, we focused on food type choice and dependence on nectar. The bats emerged every night 80 ± 30 (mean ± SE) min after sunset, irrespective of the weather, and spent most of their time foraging in leaf litter on the ground (when available) and on the branches of trees. Larvae of meal worms (Tenebrio molitor) and cerambycid beetles (Prionoplus reticularis) were favoured in the diet, followed in diminishing order by adult meal worms, tree weta (Hemideina crassidens) and crickets (Teleogryllus commodus), some nectars, sugar solutions, and finally water. Nectar from Eucalyptus sp. was preferred, followed by nectar of pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), wood rose (Dactylanthus taylorii), and kakabeak (Clianthus puniceus). Nectar of Acacia sp., Hebe sp., and synthetic Dactylanthus nectar were not taken. The bats visited 50 and 25% sugar solutions significantly more frequently (91% of visits) than 12.5 and 0% sugar solutions. Various meats (carrion) and fruit were not eaten. Faecal content fairly represented the invertebrates consumed the previous night, but the volumes of invertebrates consumed could not be reliably estimated from faecal analysis.     

Diets of adult and nestling starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in Hawke’s Bay,New Zealand

Abstract

Gizzards were examined from 334 adult and 62 nestling starlings collected in mixed farmland during 1971–72. The birds ate insects, spiders, earthworms, snails, millipedes, centipedes, seeds, and fruits. Starlings ate fewer subterranean animals (7%) than those usually living partially hidden (45%), on the ground (31%), or on vegetation (18%). About half the invertebrates eaten were 2–5 mm long and about a quarter 6–10 mm long. Nestlings tend to be fed significantly larger items than were eaten by adults. The commonest items in adult starlings were Coleoptera adults, Lepidoptera larvae, Hemiptera, and fruits; in nestlings, Coleoptera adults and Diptera adults and larvae were important. Earthworms were found in all the nestlings. More than 50% of adult gizzards contained earthworm chaetae in wetter months, but fewer in drier months. The diet of starlings, despite considerable overlap with the foods eaten by mynas, rooks, and magpies, included somewhat different components and proportions of the food supply. Fruits were found in adults only; most were probably eaten after harvest. Although predation on two major pasture pests—Costelytra zealandica and Wiseana cervinata larvae—was insubstantial, nearly 40% of the total invertebrates eaten by adult starlings were insect pest species.     

A Megafauna’s Microfauna: Gastrointestinal Parasites of New Zealand’s Extinct Moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes)

We perform the first multidisciplinary study of parasites from an extinct megafaunal clade using coprolites from the New Zealand moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes). Ancient DNA and microscopic analyses of 84 coprolites deposited by four moa species (South Island giant moa, Dinornis robustus; little bush moa, Anomalopteryx didiformis; heavy-footed moa, Pachyornis elephantopus; and upland moa, Megalapteryx didinus) reveal an array of gastrointestinal parasites including coccidians (Cryptosporidium and members of the suborder Eimeriorina), nematodes (Heterakoidea, Trichostrongylidae, Trichinellidae) and a trematode (Echinostomida). Parasite eggs were most prevalent and diverse in coprolites from lowland sites, where multiple sympatric moa species occurred and host density was therefore probably higher. Morphological and phylogenetic evidence supports a possible vicariant Gondwanan origin for some of the moa parasites. The discovery of apparently host-specific parasite taxa suggests paleoparasitological studies of megafauna coprolites may provide useful case-studies of coextinction.     

Genetic differentiation and limited gene flow among fragmented populations of New Zealand endemic Hector’s and Maui’s dolphins

Gene flow among small fragmented populations is critical for maintaining genetic diversity, and therefore the evolutionary potential of a species. Concern for two New Zealand endemic subspecies, the Hector’s (Cephalorhynchus hectori hectori) and Maui’s (C. h. maui) dolphins, arises from their low abundance, slow rate of reproduction, and susceptibility to fisheries-related mortality. Our work examined genetic differentiation and migration between the subspecies and among regional and local Hector’s dolphin populations using mitochondrial (mt) DNA and microsatellite genotypes from 438 samples. Results confirmed earlier reports of a single unique mtDNA control region haplotype fixed in the Maui’s dolphin, and provided new evidence of reproductive isolation from Hector’s dolphins (9-locus microsatellite F _ST?=?0.167, P?<?0.001). Independent evolutionary trajectories were also supported for Hector’s dolphin populations of the East Coast, West Coast, Te Waewae Bay and Toetoe Bay. Low asymmetrical migration rates were found among several Hector’s dolphin populations and assignment tests identified five Hector’s dolphins likely to have a migrant father from another regional population. There appears to be sufficient step-wise gene flow to maintain genetic diversity within the East and West Coasts; however, the two local South Coast populations exhibited a high degree of differentiation given their close proximity (~100?km). To maintain the evolutionary potential and long-term survival of both subspecies, genetic monitoring and conservation management must focus on maintaining corridors to preserve gene flow and prevent further population fragmentation and loss of genetic diversity, in addition to maintaining local population abundances.     

Diet and prey selection in Kuhl’s pipistrellePipistrellus kuhlii (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in south-western Europe

The trophic ecology of Kuhl’s pipistrellePipistrellus kuhlii (Kuhl, 1817) was investigated monthly from May to October 1999. Nine insect and two arachnid orders were identified in faeces and classified in 24 different categories. The most frequently occurring prey categories were Culicidae, Lepidoptera, Chironomidae/Ceratopogonidae, Hymenoptera, unidentified Brachycera, Tipulidae and unidentified Coleoptera in decreasing order. Other categories exhibited seasonal importance, such as the coleopteranRhizotrogus sp. Prey availability was evaluated monthly using Malaise traps in known feeding areas. Bats preyed selectively through a temporarily changing pattern. Some taxa constituted an important part of the diet and were positively selected either monthly or in most of the months. Many of them were the largest prey featuring in the diet and changes of their relative profitability across time would determine their selection index. The small size of some prey categories as well asP.kuhlii’s morphofunctional constraints relative to flight and echolocation could explain their underexploitation or rejection. Our results suggest thatP. kuhlii could be regarded as a ‘selective opportunist’ species.     

Population viability analysis of New Zealand sea lions, Auckland Islands, New Zealand’s sub-Antarctics: assessing relative impacts and uncertainty

A common issue faced in wildlife management is how to assess the uncertainty of potential impacts on the viability of a species or population. The pup production of New Zealand (NZ) sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) has declined 50% in the last 12?years at their main breeding area, the Auckland Islands. The two major known atypical impacts on NZ sea lions are as follows: (1) the direct mortality as bycatch of trawling and (2) bacterial epizootics, which can affect reproduction and mortality. Both of these impacts include high levels of uncertainty, with fisheries data being variable due to percentage observer coverage and the effect of sea lion exclusion devises, while the timing and severity of bacterial epizootics are not predictable. In this paper, an age-structured model of the NZ sea lion population at the Auckland Islands was built to examine the predicted effects of fisheries mortality and catastrophes (bacterial epizootics), both separately and then combined, on population viability over a 100-year period using the VORTEX population viability analysis programme. These models are then compared against 15?years of empirical field data to determine the actual level of impacts being observed. Model results indicate that although naturally occurring epizootics reduce the growth rate of the population, it does not cause a decline in the Auckland Island population. However, sustained fisheries bycatch at current estimated levels, particularly considering its potential impact on adult female survival, could result in a population decline and possible functional extinction over the modelled time period.     

The potential availability of roosting sites for lesser short‐tailed bats (Mystacina tuberculata) on Kapiti Island,New Zealand: Implications for a translocation

Abstract

Lesser short‐tailed bats (Mystacina tuberculata) have recently been translocated to Kapiti Island in an attempt to form a new population of this threatened species. However, the island's vegetation is regenerating, and there was doubt that the forests provided enough large trees with cavities for bats to roost in. This study measured the availability of tree‐trunk cavities of the right size for potential roost sites on Kapiti Island, and assessed if habitat restoration would be required to increase the translocation's chance of success. first, trees with cavities accessible to us were sampled in six of Kapiti Island's forest types. Size variables known to affect roost site selection by lesser short‐tailed bats at the tree and cavity level were measured. Trees were classified as containing cavities that could potentially provide suitable roosts if their values for all variables measured fell within the range of roosts used by lesser short‐tailed bats in natural populations. Roosts were classified as suitably sized for solitary bats or for colonies, using measurements from both types of roosts in natural populations. Second, the density of these potential roost cavities was calculated. Cavities of a size potentially suitable for colonies were found in four of the six forest types at densities ranging from 3.2 ± 3.2 Se to 52.4 ± 14.0 trees per ha. density of potential solitary roosts was much higher. Not all potential cavities will be suitable because they may be damp, poorly insulated, or have an unsuitable microclimate. Nevertheless, our estimates indicated that the two most extensive forest types each contained thousands of potential cavities of a size suitable for colonies of lesser short‐tailed bats. In addition, there were tens of thousands of cavities large enough to shelter solitary bats. Roost habitat restoration appears unnecessary to assist translocated Mystacina tuberculata on Kapiti Island.     

Pandora’s box down-under: origins and numbers of mustelids transported to New Zealand for biological control of rabbits

This paper describes one of the world’s first large-scale experiments in biological control of a major vertebrate pest of agriculture, which was tried in New Zealand during the second half of the nineteenth century. Starting from the late 1860s, pasture damage in Southland and Otago by European rabbits was causing serious reductions in productivity of sheep (wool clip and lambing percentages) associated with malnutrition of the breeding ewes, and a consequent decline in the value of pastoral land. In response, and despite repeated local and international warnings, ferrets, stoats and weasels (Mustela furo, M. erminea and M. nivalis) were liberated on the worst of the rabbit-infested pastures. They were perceived as the ‘natural enemies of the rabbit’ but (unlike foxes) too small to threaten lambs. Over the 50 years after 1870, upwards of 75,000 ferrets, most imported from Australia or locally bred, were released in the South Island. Over the decade 1883–1892, at least 7838 stoats and weasels arrived from Britain. At least 25 shipments are known, with an average of only 10% mortality per shipment. Of the 3585 animals listed by species, 73% were weasels. The total cost of the ferret programme cannot now be estimated; that of stoats and weasels alone was at least £5441, probably twice that, or >$NZ 1–2 million in today’s money. Mustelids (and cats) killed many young rabbits, which was helpful because rates of change in rabbit populations are sensitive to variations in juvenile mortality, but in the most rabbit-prone semi-arid lands, mustelids could not remove enough rabbits to prevent the continuing damage to sheep pastures. The era of deliberate introductions of mustelids to control rabbits in New Zealand was short, expensive, and unsuccessful.     

Development and characterization of 11 polymorphic compound tetranucleotide microsatellite loci for the Leisler’s bat, Nyctalus leisleri (Vespertilionidae, Chiroptera)

Eleven polymorphic microsatellite marker loci were developed from a Leisler’s bat (Nyctalus leisleri) genomic enriched library. Assessment of the usefulness of these markers for population genetics studies of Leisler’s bats was carried out by screening 100 specimens sampled from eight locations in Ireland and two in Northeastern France. Both moderately and highly polymorphic marker loci were identified. Five to 28 alleles were found to be segregating per locus with observed heterozygosities values ranging from 28.4 to 94%. Initial evaluation indicates that these microsatellites will be useful for genetic based studies aiming, for instance, at parentage and population structure of Leisler’s bats.     

Gas Chromatography Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS)-Based Metabolomics for Comparison of Caffeinated and Decaffeinated Coffee and Its Implications for Alzheimer’s Disease

Findings from epidemiology, preclinical and clinical studies indicate that consumption of coffee could have beneficial effects against dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The benefits appear to come from caffeinated coffee, but not decaffeinated coffee or pure caffeine itself. Therefore, the objective of this study was to use metabolomics approach to delineate the discriminant metabolites between caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, which could have contributed to the observed therapeutic benefits. Gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS)-based metabolomics approach was employed to characterize the metabolic differences between caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) showed distinct separation between the two types of coffee (cumulative Q² = 0.998). A total of 69 discriminant metabolites were identified based on the OPLS-DA model, with 37 and 32 metabolites detected to be higher in caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, respectively. These metabolites include several benzoate and cinnamate-derived phenolic compounds, organic acids, sugar, fatty acids, and amino acids. Our study successfully established GC-TOF-MS based metabolomics approach as a highly robust tool in discriminant analysis between caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee samples. Discriminant metabolites identified in this study are biologically relevant and provide valuable insights into therapeutic research of coffee against AD. Our data also hint at possible involvement of gut microbial metabolism to enhance therapeutic potential of coffee components, which represents an interesting area for future research.     

New cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer’s disease: Structure Activity Studies (SARs) and molecular docking of isoquinolone and azepanone derivatives

A library of isoquinolinone and azepanone derivatives were screened for both acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activity. The strategy adopted included (a) in vitro biological assays, against eel AChE (EeAChE) and equine serum BuChE (EqBuChE) in order to determine the compounds IC₅₀ and their dose-response activity, consolidated by (b) molecular docking studies to evaluate the docking poses and interatomic interactions in the case of the hit compounds, validated by STD-NMR studies. Compound (1f) was identified as one of these hits with an IC₅₀ of 89.5 μM for EeAChE and 153.8 μM for EqBuChE, (2a) was identified as a second hit with an IC₅₀ of 108.4 μM (EeAChE) and 277.8 μM (EqBuChE). In order to gain insights into the binding mode and principle active site interactions of these molecules, (R)-(1f) along with 3 other analogues (also as the R-enantiomer) were docked into both RhAChE and hBuChE models. Galantamine was used as the benchmark. The docking study was validated by performing an STD-NMR study of (1f) with EeAChE using galantamine as the benchmark.     

Evidence for multiple MHC class II β loci in New Zealand’s critically endangered kakapo, Strigops habroptilus

Immunologically important genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) have been characterized in a number of avian species with the general finding of considerable variation in size and structural organization among organisms. A range of nonpasserines which represent early-diverging Neoave lineages have been described as having only one MHC class II β locus potentially leading to the conclusion that this is the ancestral condition. Here, we examine the monotypic, early-diverging, critically endangered kakapo, Strigops habroptilus, for allelic variation at MHC class II β exon 2, as part of species’ recovery efforts. We found two to four confirmed sequence variants per individual indicating the presence of more than one MHC class II β locus. Given the kakapo’s basal evolutionary status, evidence for multiple MHC class II β loci seems to counter the proposed mono-locus history of modern birds. However, MHC gene duplication, maintenance, and loss among and within bird species may confound avian relationships making it difficult to elucidate the ancestral state. This study adds essential data for disentangling the course of MHC structural evolution in birds.     

Habitat Association and Conservation Implications of Endangered Francois’ Langur (Trachypithecus francoisi)

Francois’ langur (Trachypithecus francoisi) is an endangered primate and endemic to the limestone forests of the tropical and subtropical zone of northern Vietnam and South-west China with a population of about 2,000 individuals. Conservation efforts are hampered by limited knowledge of habitat preference in its main distribution area. We surveyed the distribution of Francois’ langur and modeled the relationship between the probability of use and habitat features in Mayanghe National Nature Reserve, Guizhou, China. The main objectives of this study were to provide quantitative information on habitat preference, estimating the availability of suitable habitat, and providing management guidelines for the effective conservation of this species. By comparing 92 used locations with habitat available in the reserve, we found that Francois’ langur was mainly distributed along valleys and proportionally, used bamboo forests and mixed conifer-broadleaf forests more than their availability, whereas they tended to avoid shrubby areas and coniferous forests. The langur tended to occur at sites with lower elevation, steeper slope, higher tree canopy density, and a close distance to roads and water. The habitat occupancy probability was best modeled by vegetation type, vegetation coverage, elevation, slope degree, distances to nearest water, paved road, and farmland edge. The suitable habitat in this reserve concentrated in valleys and accounted for about 25% of the total reserve area. Our results showed that Francois’ langur was not only restricted at the landscapes level at the regions with karst topography, limestone cliffs, and caves, but it also showed habitat preference at the local scale. Therefore, the protection and restoration of the langur preferred habitats such as mixed conifer-broadleaf forests are important and urgent for the conservation of this declining species.     

Population Status of the Critically Endangered Preuss’s Red Colobus Monkey (Piliocolobus preussi Matschie 1900) and Recommendations for Its Conservation

International Journal of Primatology - Overhunting and habitat loss from the expansion of agriculture and extractive industries are the primary threats to primate species, 65% of which are...