糖原合成酶激酶-3β与肾脏疾病

糖原合成酶激酶-3β(glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)GSK-3β是一种在真核生物体内广泛存在的丝/苏氨酸蛋白激酶.GSK-3β是Wnt/β-catenin、PI3K/Akt、胰岛素等多种信号通路的关键调节因子,并与多种疾病有关.最近人们发现,GSK-3β是通过使多种底物发生磷酸化来发挥生物学功能.主要就GSK-3β在肾脏疾病研究中的新进展作一综述,希望为探索各种肾脏疾病的发病机制以及寻找有效的治疗手段提供新视角.     

糖元合成酶激酶3β对微管相关蛋白tau的磷酸化作用

tau蛋白是中枢神经系统中重要的微管相关蛋白,其功能受磷酸化调节.异常过度磷酸化的tau蛋白是阿尔茨海默病患者脑中神经纤维缠结的主要组成部分.糖元合成酶激酶3β(glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)是重要的tau蛋白激酶之一,它虽可催化tau蛋白多个位点的磷酸化,但对不同位点,其催化效率不同.通过位点特异性、磷酸化依赖的tau蛋白抗体,用免疫印迹技术,检测GSK-3β对tau蛋白位点特异性的磷酸化作用及动力学.用双倒数作图,计算GSK-3β催化tau磷酸化以及各个位点磷酸化的Km值,并结合培养细胞中的实验,研究GSK-3β对tau蛋白磷酸化作用的位点特异性.结果显示,GSK-3β催化tau蛋白多个位点的磷酸化,其中包括Thr181、Ser199、Ser202、Thr205、Thr212、Thr217、Thr231、Ser396和Ser404,对不同的位点磷酸化作用,其Km值不同,GSK-3β对Ser396的Km值最低,即对Ser396位点的亲和性最高,催化其磷酸化的能力最强.在培养的细胞中,也显示了GSK-3β的表达引起Ser396位点的磷酸化最明显.     

糖原合成酶激酶-3对τ蛋白磷酸化作用的研究

糖原合成酶激酶 ３（ Ｇ Ｓ Ｋ ３）在 ３０℃与 τ蛋白保温 ４ ｈ 可催化 １７±０４ ｍ ｏｌ磷酸参入 １ ｍ ｏｌτ蛋白 将磷酸化的 τ蛋白经胰蛋白酶消化, Ｆｅ Ｃｌ３ 亲和柱分离及 Ｃ１８反相高压液相层析纯化后,再用高压电泳,手工 Ｅｄｍ ａｎ 降解及自动氨基酸序列分析等检测技术,对其磷酸化位点进行鉴定 结果发现： Ｇ Ｓ Ｋ ３ 可使 τ蛋白 Ｔｈｒ １８１, Ｓｅｒ １８４, Ｓｅｒ ２６２, Ｓｅｒ ３５６ 和 Ｓｅｒ ４００ 发生磷酸化 其中 Ｓｅｒ ２６２ 和 Ｓｅｒ ４００ 为 Ａｌｚｈｅｉｍ ｅｒ 病（ Ａ Ｄ）τ蛋白的异常磷酸化位点根据上述磷酸化作用仅轻度抑制τ蛋白生物学活性,推测： Ａ Ｄ τ蛋白 Ｓｅｒ ２６２ 和 Ｓｅｒ ４００ 的磷酸化可能不是决定其生物功能的关键性位点,单纯 Ｇ Ｓ Ｋ ３ 不能复制 Ａ Ｄ 样 τ蛋白的病理改变      

MiR-107对柯萨奇病毒B3感染细胞糖原合成酶激酶-3β蛋白及β-连环蛋白表达的影响

【背景】MiR-107异常表达可引起肿瘤细胞中Wnt/β-catenin信号通路主要蛋白表达发生改变,但其能否在柯萨奇病毒B3（coxsackievirus B3,CVB3）感染的人宫颈癌细胞（HeLa cells）中发挥同样作用却未见报道。【目的】探讨miR-107能否影响CVB3感染HeLa细胞中的糖原合成酶激酶-3β（GSK-3β）蛋白、P-GSK-3β蛋白和β连环蛋白（β-catenin）的表达水平。【方法】体外培养HeLa细胞,感染CVB3不同时间,通过显微镜观察HeLa细胞的形态学变化、实时荧光定量PCR实验检测HeLa细胞中miR-107表达量、免疫印迹实验检测HeLa细胞中的GSK-3β、P-GSK-3β、β-catenin蛋白及病毒衣壳蛋白（VP1）的表达水平。【结果】CVB3感染HeLa细胞6 h后,细胞病变效应明显,miR-107表达量及GSK-3β、P-GSK-3β和VP1蛋白的表达水平随CVB3感染时间（0—8 h）的延长逐渐增加,而β-catenin蛋白的表达水平逐渐减少。过表达miR-107的CVB3感染6 h的HeLa细胞死亡细胞增多,GSK-3β、P-GSK-3β和VP1蛋白表达水平增加（P<0.05）,β-catenin蛋白表达水平减少（P<0.001）;抑制miR-107的CVB3感染6 h的HeLa细胞GSK-3β、P-GSK-3β及VP1蛋白表达水平明显减少（P<0.05）,β-catenin蛋白表达水平明显增加（P<0.05）。【结论】MiR-107异常表达可影响CVB3感染HeLa细胞中Wnt/β-catenin信号通路蛋白和病毒衣壳蛋白的表达水平。     

糖原合成激酶3β与乙肝病毒胎盘组织感染的关系

目的:初步探讨糖原合成激酶3β(GSK3β)与乙肝病毒胎盘组织感染关系,为进一步研究乙肝病毒在宫内感染中的作用机制奠定基础。方法:选择2011年-2012年在哈尔滨医科大学附属第二医院妇产科剖宫产结束妊娠的乙肝表面抗原阳性(HBsAg+)孕妇60例(实验组),正常妊娠孕妇的胎盘组织20例(对照组)。于分娩前留取孕妇肘静脉血,分娩时留取脐血及胎盘组织。采用ELISA法检测实验组静脉血及脐带血的乙肝五项与HBV-DNA定量;采用免疫组化方法,检测各实验组中HBsAg的表达及分布;检测实验组与对照组GSK3β的分布及表达情况;采用TUNEL法检测实验组及对照组细胞凋亡情况。结果:60例HBsAg(+)产妇中,37例脐带血HBsAg阳性,12例脐带血HBV-DNA阳性;实验组胎盘组织中均检测出HBsAg、GSK3β蛋白表达,且随着血清HBV-DNA滴度增高,HBsAg与GSK3β的表达均呈增高趋势(P0.05);实验组和对照组的胎盘组织中均可检测出凋亡细胞,实验组的凋亡程度低于对照组,随HBV-DNA滴度增高,凋亡呈下降趋势(P0.05)。结论:在乙肝病毒的垂直传播过程,HBsAg可能通过GSK3β抑制胎盘细胞凋亡,影响正常胎盘组织的屏障功能,可能是造成宫内感染的相关机制。     

糖原合酶激酶-3，一个信号通路的重要调控因子

糖原合酶激酶-3 (glycogen synthase kinase-3,GSK-3) 是一种多功能的丝氨酸／苏氨酸蛋白激酶,在蛋白质合成、信号传递、细胞增殖、细胞分化、神经功能、肿瘤形成及胚胎发育等众多细胞进程中均扮演重要的角色.GSK-3 能够使多种底物发生磷酸化,并参与胰岛素、Wnt及Hedgehog 等多个信号通路的调控. GSK-3抑制剂在信号通路中能有效地抑制病理情况下GSK-3活性的异常增高,达到治疗的目的.GSK-3的抑制剂将作为一种潜在的药物对治疗糖尿病、阿尔海默茨症、肿瘤等疾病发挥效用.     

糖原合酶激酶-3β调节9G8介导的tau外显子10的可变剪接

Tau外显子10的可变剪接产生含3个微管结合片段或4个微管结合片段的tau蛋白变异体(3R-tau和4R-tau).正常成年人脑中,3R-tau和4R-tau的表达水平相近,这种比例对于维持正常脑功能非常重要.9G8是剪接因子SR蛋白家族中的成员之一,参与多种基因转录产物的剪接调控,它的功能和活性受磷酸化高度调节.糖原合酶激酶(GSK)-3β是体内重要的蛋白激酶,已有研究显示它参与调节tau外显子10的可变剪接.利用微型tau基因研究了9G8在不同细胞系中对tau外显子10可变剪接的作用以及GSK-3β对9G8介导的tau外显子10可变剪接的影响.结果显示,过表达9G8抑制tau外显子10的表达,GSK-3β在体外可催化9G8的磷酸化,GSK-3β可以被9G8从大鼠脑匀浆中沉降(pull-down),提示它们之间可能存在相互作用,在培养的细胞中,GSK-3β与9G8之间存在共定位,过表达GSK-3β抑制9G8对外显子10可变剪接的作用,有利于4R-tau的产生.这些结果显示GSK-3β影响9G8介导的tau外显子10的剪接.     

14-3-3蛋白在细胞周期调节中的作用

14-3-3是一个在真核细胞中广泛表达、功能复杂的蛋白家族,主要通过磷酸化依赖的方式与靶蛋白结合,从而发挥其调控作用。细胞周期的调节对维持基因组的稳定性至关重要。近年来的研究发现,14-3—3蛋白可以和越来越多的细胞周期调节蛋白相互作用,调节G2／M期和G1／S期转换,从而对细胞周期起调控作用。简要综述了14—3—3蛋白在细胞周期调节中的作用。     

糖原合成酶激酶3在猪气道上皮细胞鳞状分化中作用的初步探讨

为探讨糖原合成酶激酶3（glycogen synthase kinase 3,GSK3）在气道（气管和支气管）上皮细胞鳞状分化中的作用,培养原代猪气道上皮细胞,用GSK3的高度选择性抑制剂氯化锂处理,观察细胞形态变化,用Western blot检测β-连环素、磷酸化GSK3和鳞状分化标记物外皮蛋白的表达、RT-PCR检测鳞状分化标记物小脯氨酸丰富蛋白mRNA的表达、荧光素酶报告基因分析β-连环素／Tcf信号的激活状态。结果显示,锂能诱导猪气道上皮细胞出现鳞状形态、增加小脯氨酸丰富蛋白mRNA和外皮蛋白的表达、促进GSK3的抑制性丝氨酸磷酸化和β-连环素的细胞核内转位;锂能激活β-连环素／Tcf信号,但该作用出现于鳞状分化标记物增加之后。上述结果提示,GSK3可能参与猪气道上皮细胞的鳞状分化。     

Knockdown of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 modulates basal glycogen synthase kinase-3β kinase activity and regulates cell migration

GSK-3β is a basally active kinase. Axin forms a complex with GSK-3β and β-catenin; this complex promotes the GSK-3β-dependent phosphorylation of β-catenin, thereby inducing its degradation. However, the inhibition of GSK-3β provokes cell migration via the dysregulation of β-catenin. In this study, we determined that the level of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) was lower in a metastatic breast cancer cell line, compared to that of non-metastatic cancer cell lines and the knockdown of ASK1 not only induces β-catenin activation via the inhibition of GSK-3β and collapsing the subsequent protein complex by regulating Axin dynamics, but also stimulates cell migration. Together, the blockage of the GSK-3β-β-catenin pathway resulting from the knockdown of ASK1 modulates the migration of breast cancer cells.     

Synthesis and evaluation of 8-amino-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a]pyridin-3(2H)-one derivatives as glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) inhibitors

New potent glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) inhibitors, 8-amino-[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a]pyridin-3(2H)-one derivatives, were designed by modeling, synthesized and evaluated in vitro. Compound 17c showed good potency in enzyme and cell-based assays (IC₅₀ = 111 nM, EC₅₀ = 1.78 μM). Moreover, it has demonstrated desirable water solubility, PK profile, and moderate brain penetration.     

New insights into the autoinhibition mechanism of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta

It has been suggested that phosphorylation at serine 9 near the N-terminus of glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β) mimics the prephosphorylation of its substrate and, therefore, the N-terminus functions as a pseudosubstrate. The molecular basis for the pseudosubstrate's binding to the catalytic core and autoinhibition has not been fully defined. Here, we combined biochemical and computational analyses to identify the potential residues within the N-terminus and the catalytic core engaged in autoinhibition of GSK-3β. Bioinformatic analysis found Arg4, Arg6, and Ser9 in the pseudosubstrate sequence to be extremely conserved through evolution. Mutations at Arg4 and Arg6 to alanine enhanced GSK-3β kinase activity and impaired its ability to autophosphorylate at Ser9. In addition, and unlike wild-type GSK-3β, these mutants were unable to undergo autoinhibition by phosphorylated Ser9. We further show that Gln89 and Asn95, located within the catalytic core, interact with the pseudosubstrate. Mutation at these sites prevented inhibition by phosphorylated Ser9. Furthermore, the respective mutants were not inhibited by a phosphorylated pseudosubstrate peptide inhibitor. Finally, computational docking of the pseudosubstrate into the catalytic active site of the kinase suggested specific interactions between Arg6 and Asn95 and of Arg4 to Asp181 (apart from the interaction of phosphorylated serine 9 with the “phosphate binding pocket”). Altogether, our study supports a model of GSK-3-pseudosubstrate autoregulation that involves phosphorylated Ser9, Arg4, and Arg6 within the N-terminus and identified the specific contact sites within the catalytic core.     

Computer-aided molecular design of pyrazolotriazines targeting glycogen synthase kinase 3

Numerous studies have highlighted the implications of the glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) in several processes associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Therefore, GSK-3 has become a crucial therapeutic target for the treatment of this neurodegenerative disorder. Hereby, we report the design and multistep synthesis of ethyl 4-oxo-pyrazolo[4,3-d][1–3]triazine-7-carboxylates and their biological evaluation as GSK-3 inhibitors. Molecular modelling studies allow us to develop this new scaffold optimising the chemical structure. Potential binding mode determination in the enzyme and the analysis of the key features in the catalytic site are also described. Furthermore, the ability of pyrazolotriazinones to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB) was evaluated by passive diffusion and those who showed great GSK-3 inhibition and permeation to the central nervous system (CNS) showed neuroprotective properties against tau hyperphosphorylation in a cell-based model. These new brain permeable pyrazolotriazinones may be used for key in vivo studies and may be considered as new leads for further optimisation for the treatment of AD.     

The primary defect in glycogen synthase activity is not based on increased glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha activity in diabetic myotubes

The mechanism responsible for the diminished activation of glycogen synthase (GS) in diabetic myotubes remains unclear, but may involve increased activity and/or expression of glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3). In myotubes established from type 2 diabetic and healthy control subjects we determined GS activity ratio, protein expression, and activity of GSK-3alpha and beta under basal and insulin-stimulated conditions when precultured in increasing insulin concentrations. In myotubes precultured at low insulin concentrations acute insulin stimulation increased GS activity more in control than in diabetic subjects, whereas the corresponding GSK-3alpha but not GSK-3beta activity was significantly reduced by acute insulin treatment in both groups. However, in myotubes precultured at high insulin concentrations the effect of insulin on GS and GSK-3alpha activity was blunted in both groups. The protein expression of GSK-3alpha or beta was unaffected. In conclusion, myotubes with a primary defect in GS activity express insulin responsive GSK-3alpha, suggesting that failure of insulin to decrease GS phosphorylation involves abnormal activity of another kinase or phosphatase.     

Probing the physicochemical and structural requirements for glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha inhibition: 2D-QSAR for 3-anilino-4-phenylmaleimides

Glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha (GSK-3alpha) was recently found to be an attractive target for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease due to its dual action in the formation of both amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. It is also a viable target for many other diseases, such as type 2 diabetes. Reported herein is a 2D-QSAR exploration of the physicochemical (hydrophobic, electronic, and steric) and structural requirements among 3-anilino-4-phenylmaleimides toward GSK-3alpha binding. Using Fujita-Ban and Hansch QSAR analysis, electronic and steric interactions at the 4-phenyl ring and hydrophobic interactions at the 3-anilino ring are shown to be crucial. Analysis of the 4-phenyl ring of these compounds using common aromatic substituent constants showed electron-withdrawing and bulky ortho substituents as imperative for GSK-3alpha inhibition.     

Presenilin-1 is an unprimed glycogen synthase kinase-3beta substrate

Previously we described presenilin-1 (PS1) as a GSK-3beta substrate [Kirschenbaum, F., Hsu, S.C., Cordell, B. and McCarthy, J.V. (2001) Substitution of a glycogen synthase kinase-3beta phosphorylation site in presenilin 1 separates presenilin function from beta-catenin signalling. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 7366-7375; Kirschenbaum, F., Hsu, S.C., Cordell, B. and McCarthy, J.V. (2001) Glycogen synthase kinase-3beta regulates presenilin 1 C-terminal fragment levels. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 30701-30707], though it has not been determined whether PS1 is a primed or unprimed GSK-3beta substrate. A means of separating GSK-3beta activity toward primed and unprimed substrates was identified in the GSK-3beta-R96A phosphate binding pocket mutant [Frame, S., Cohen, P. and Biondi, R.M. (2001) A common phosphate binding site explains the unique substrate specificity of GSK3 and its inactivation by phosphorylation. Mol. Cell 7, 1321-1327], which is unable to phosphorylate primed but retains the ability to phosphorylate unprimed GSK-3beta substrates. By using wild type GSK-3beta, GSK-3beta-R96A, and a pharmacological modulator of GSK-3beta activity, we demonstrate that PS1 is an unprimed GSK-3beta substrate. These findings have important implications for regulation of PS1 function and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.     

Zcchc8 is a glycogen synthase kinase-3 substrate that interacts with RNA-binding proteins

Phosphorylation of c-Myc on threonine 58 (T58) stimulates its degradation by the Fbw7-SCF ubiquitin ligase. We used a phosphorylation-specific antibody raised against the c-Myc T58 region to attempt to identify other proteins regulated by the Fbw7 pathway. We identified two predominant proteins recognized by this antibody. The first is Ebna1 binding protein 2, a nucleolar protein that, in contrast with a previous report, is likely responsible for the nucleolar staining exhibited by this antibody. The second is Zcchc8, a nuclear protein that is highly phosphorylated in cells treated with nocodazole. We show that Zcchc8 is directly phosphorylated by GSK-3 in vitro and that GSK-3 inhibition prevents Zcchc8 phosphorylation in vivo. Moreover, we found that Zcchc8 interacts with proteins involved in RNA processing/degradation. We suggest that Zcchc8 is a GSK-3 substrate with a role in RNA metabolism.     

Involvement of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta and tau phosphorylation in neuronal Golgi disassembly

The dissociation of the neuronal Golgi complex is a classical feature observed in neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease. The goal of this study is to determine if the phosphorylation of tau protein is involved in neuronal Golgi disassembly. Primary cortical cultures were exposed to two Golgi toxins, brefeldin A (BFA) or nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA). Immunocytochemical studies using the anti58 k antibody revealed that Golgi disassembly started in exposed neurons a few minutes after treatment. BFA and NDGA induced a rapid and transient increase in tau phosphorylation in a site-specific manner on immunoblots. In addition, the increase in tau phosphorylation directly correlated with a transient dissociation of tau from the cytoskeleton and a decrease of the acetylated tubulin. Furthermore, the activity of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) increased transiently, as demonstrated by the kinase activity assay and by immunoblottings of serine-9 and tyrosine-216 phosphorylated of GSK-3beta. A decrease of the Akt phosphorylated form was also shown. The increase in tau phosphorylation was inhibited by the GSK-3beta inhibitor, lithium. Finally, morphometric studies showed that lithium partially blocked the Golgi disassembly caused by BFA or NDGA. Together these findings indicate that GSK-3beta activity and tau phosphorylation state are involved in the maintenance of the neuronal Golgi organization.     

Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) regulates multiple signaling pathways by enhancing glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) activity

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is essential for many signaling pathways and cellular processes. As Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC) functions in many of the same processes, we investigated a role for APC in the regulation of GSK-3-dependent signaling. We find that APC directly enhances GSK-3 activity. Furthermore, knockdown of APC mimics inhibition of GSK-3 by reducing phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and by activating mTOR, revealing novel roles for APC in the regulation of these enzymes. Wnt signaling inhibits GSK-3 through an unknown mechanism, and this results in both stabilization of β-catenin and activation of mTOR. We therefore hypothesized that Wnts may regulate GSK-3 by disrupting the interaction between APC and the Axin-GSK-3 complex. We find that Wnts rapidly induce APC dissociation from Axin, correlating with β-catenin stabilization. Furthermore, Axin interaction with the Wnt co-receptor LRP6 causes APC dissociation from Axin. We propose that APC regulates multiple signaling pathways by enhancing GSK-3 activity, and that Wnts induce APC dissociation from Axin to reduce GSK-3 activity and activate downstream signaling. APC regulation of GSK-3 also provides a novel mechanism for Wnt regulation of multiple downstream effectors, including β-catenin and mTOR.