Commentary on two misconceptions of phylogeny and classification

A recent brief communication criticizes a morphometric study of the structure of Daubentonia (Oxnard, 1981). The criticisms are invalid because they apply to the concept of the detailed character state in a localized anatomical region, a type of morphological information different than the broad measurement that embodies many characters. The criticisms themselves display, moreover, exactly those problems of prior assumption that the underlying philosophy of multivariate morphometric studies as used by Oxnard (1981) tries to eliminate.     

Prezygapophyseal articular facet shape in the catarrhine thoracolumbar vertebral column

Two contrasting patterns of lumbar vertebral morphology generally characterize anthropoids. “Long‐backed” monkeys are distinguished from “short‐backed” apes [Benton: The baboon in medical research, Vol. 2 (1967:201)] with respect to several vertebral features thought to afford greater spinal flexibility in the former and spinal rigidity in the latter. Yet, discussions of spinal mobility are lacking important functional insight that can be gained by analysis of the zygapophyses, the spine's synovial joints responsible for allowing and resisting intervertebral movements. Here, prezygapophyseal articular facet (PAF) shape in the thoracolumbar spine of Papio, Hylobates, Pongo, Gorilla, and Pan is evaluated in the context of the “long‐backed” versus “short‐backed” model. A three‐dimensional geometric morphometric approach is used to examine how PAF shape changes along the thoracolumbar vertebral column of each taxon and how PAF shape varies across taxa at corresponding vertebral levels. The thoracolumbar transition in PAF shape differs between Papio and the hominoids, between Hylobates and the great apes, and to a lesser extent, among great apes. At the level of the first lumbar vertebra, the PAF shape of Papio is distinguished from that of hominoids. At the level of the second lumbar vertebra, there is variation to some extent among all taxa. These findings suggest that morphological and functional distinctions in primate vertebral anatomy may be more complex than suggested by a “long‐backed” versus “short‐backed” dichotomy. Am J Phys Anthropol 142:600–612, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

RU 38486: Potent antiglucocorticoid activity correlated with strong binding to the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor followed by an impaired activation

In order to explain the potent antiglucocorticoid activity of RU 38486 and the absence of agonist effect in spite of its very strong interaction with the cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptor (GR), we investigated the compound's ability to promote GR “activation” and nuclear translocation. We have compared the dissociation-rates of the “non-activated” (molybdate stabilized) and of the “activated” (25°C pre-heated) GR complexes formed either with [³H]RU 38486 or with different tritiated glucocorticoid agonists. While agonists dissociated more slowly from the “activated” than from the “non-activated” complex, RU 38486 dissociated much faster from the “activated” than from the “native” receptor. This difference of activation was confirmed in a DNA-cellulose binding assay. The affinity of the “activated” RU 38486-GR complex for DNA was much lower than that of the dexamethasone-GR complex. Finally, the in vitro nuclear uptake of [³H]RU 38486 was compared with that of [³H]dexamethasone after incubation with thymus minces at 25 or 37°C. A very weak or nearly undetectable level of specific uptake of [³H]RU 38486 was observed in purified nuclei, whatever the concentration or the time of incubation used. These observations suggest that while glucocorticoid agonists form with the non-activated receptor a complex able to be activated into a more stable form (lower k⁻¹), RU 38486 interacts strongly with the non-activated receptor (impeding the binding of DM) but the complex is “transformed” by heat to a less stable form (higher k⁻¹), unable to translocate properly into the nucleus in order to trigger a glucocorticoid response.     

开花期枣树茎流与气象因子的关系

阿克苏地区农田灌溉水资源利用率相对较低,大多采用漫灌为主、滴灌为辅,加上环境干旱、水资源紧缺已成为制约当地红枣种植业发展的主要因素,因此迫切需要寻找新型节水灌溉方法。该研究采用美国Dynamax公司生产的Flow-32包裹式茎流计对茎流速率进行连续监测,并在样地内安装HOBO小气候仪同步获取气象数据,将所得数据进行对比分析,探讨了不同灌溉方式下枣树茎流速率的变化规律以及与气象因子之间的关系。结果表明：两种灌溉方式下茎流连日变化呈现明显的昼夜变化规律,茎流速率均为单峰曲线且夜间茎流活动现象明显,早晨茎流启动时间W1早于W20.5 h,峰值前后W1和W2枣树茎流均出现较小幅度的“峰值群”,W1和 W2峰值出现时间分别为13：30－14：30和13：00－14：30,峰值大小分别为2133.33~2724.93 g·h-1和2234.11~2689.40 g·h-1;茎流日累积量变化过程曲线均为“S”形,但W1日茎流总量大于W2;茎流速率变化曲线均与太阳辐射和温度呈现正相关,与空气湿度呈现负相关,与风速相关性较差;太阳辐射表观波形变化趋势与两种灌溉方式下茎流变化曲线均存在异同,启动时间早于W1约0.5 h,W2约1 h,但峰值出现时间却晚于W1和W2。通过相关分析,太阳辐射均为主要影响因子,建立两种灌溉方式下液流速率与气象因子的多元线性模型,经过回归系数和相关系数检验,W1和W2多元线性回归方程均达到了显著水平。该研究结果为新型灌溉方式W1的实用性和优越性提供了科学依据。     

A morphometric study of limb proportions in leaping prosimians

Study of individual limb proportions—most notably, for instance, of the intermembral index—distinguishes from most other primates those various prosimians capable of leaping. The present investigation analyzes 24 measures of limb proportions (taken by F.-K. Jouffroy and J. Lessertisseur) from 161 specimens representing 12 species of prosimians, using the multivariate statistical method of multiple discriminant analysis (carried out by R. German and C.E. Oxnard). The results indicate that there are three major gradients: (1) indriids, (2) cheirogaleines, and (3) galagines plus Tarsius, radiating from a fourth centrally located group of species, Lemur, Lepilemur, and Hapalemur. It is likely that the morphometric relationships displayed here can be associated with behavioral (locomotor) parallels among these various forms. Though leaping is a most important adaptation among prosimians, it seems clear that it has evolved separately a number of times, and it seems at least likely that the biomechanical nature of the adaptation differs in different groups. The results, therefore, present certain new hypotheses about prosimian locomotion that can only be tested with further field and laboratory studies. This study also emphasizes the fact that anatomical adaptation is complex. Though the analysis of each anatomical region separately provides a similar qualitative picture of the variation among genera, it is only in the analysis of all measures taken together that the complete pattern described above appears. Though no new variables have been added in that analysis, new information is obviously contained within the results. Since this information stems from the interactions of the variables, it must be due to associations between these anatomical areas.     

Erratum: Human Demography in the Pleistocene: Do Mitochondrial and Nuclear Genes Tell the Same Story? Evol. Anthropol. 8: 81–86.

Eugene E. Harris and Jody Hey (1999). Human Demography in the Pleistocene: Do Mitochondrial and Nuclear Genes Tell the Same Story? Evol. Anthropol. 8: 81–86. On page 84 at the end of 1st paragraph of the 2nd column should read “. . .intergenetic variation Xq 13.3 to about 535,000 years,³⁹. . .” On page 84 in the 2nd paragraph of the 3rd column should read “. . .and seem to indicate widespread or restricted gene flow among populations.”^19,48,49 On page 85 in the 2nd paragraph of the 1st column should read “. . .united by gene flow at zones of overlap.”⁵³     

A strong,preferential response of mice to polymorphic antigenic determinants of the chicken MHC,analyzed with mouse hybridoma (monoclonal) antibodies

CBA/J mice were immunized with B²/B² chicken RBC's (theB locus is the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) of the chicken). Spleen cells from these mice gave a much higher plaque-forming cell response when tested with RBC's bearing B² alloantigens, than with RBC's bearing any other MHC alloantigens. Similarly, immunization with chicken RBC's of other genotypes also produced responses that were highest when tested on the genotype used for immunization. Spleen cells from mice immunized 3 days previously with B²/B² RBC's were fused with mouse myeloma cells and hybrid clones which secreted anti-B² antibodies were selected. These monoclonal antibodies could be divided into three groups: (1) those which react with all genotypes of RBC's (panreactive); (2) those which react with only certain genotypes of RBC's and detect “public” MHC antigens; and (3) those which react with only B²/B² RBC's and detect “private” MHC antigens. Monoclonal antibodies which detect a private B² alloantigen were shown to be excellent typing reagents, as all birds of an outbred population which possessed the B² allele were easily detected using a simple one-step direct agglutination assay. No “false positives” were seen. The high and preferential response of the mouse to chicken MHC alloantigens suggested that mice might possess preexisting immunity to these antigens. In agreement with this hypothesis, normal mouse serum was found to have high titres of “natural” antibody against chicken MHC antigens.     

Scale-independent non-parametric multivariate tolerance regions and their application in medicine

Based on the principles introduced by TUKEY and FRASER , a method is proposed to construct non-parametric multivariate tolerance regions of irregular multiplanar shape. Contrary to the regions of corresponding shape as constructed by Tukey and Fraser, the tolerance regions constructed according to the proposed method can be shown to be invariant to linear scale transformations. In medical applications, where the concept of multivariate tolerance regions can be used to define “normal” regions for p ≦ 2 variables with measuring units generally differing from each other, the quality of scale-independency of the regions is essential. With reference to the method proposed, sample size determination and some important aspects of the use of multivariate tolerance regions are discussed.     

Non-linear arrhenius plots and the analysis of reaction and motional rates in biological membranes

We have systematically derived the rate-temperature relationships for a variety of models of membrane rate processes (particularly enzymic reactions) in order to predict the Arrhenius plot shape(s) appropriate to each model. We have explicitly considered the fact that most thermotropic changes in biological systems extend over finite and sometimes very broad temperature ranges. The rate-temperature relationships for most of the models considered can be expressed in a common, rather simple mathematical form suitable for application in computer data analysis. Only a few models predict Arrhenius plots with the “biphasic linear” form commonly reported in studies of membrane enzymes. However, many of the models yield plots which can be fitted to two intersecting lines within a quite modest experimental error, especially if the change in the slope of the plot around its “break” corresponds to a change in activation enthalpy of less than 15–20 kcal mol^?1. In general, Arrhenius-type plots of motional and reaction rates in membranes are found to be capable of indicating the midpoint but not the endpoints or the overall width of thermotropic transitions in the state of membrane components. Our findings clearly indicate a need for a more rigorous analysis of Arrhenius plot data in terms of graph shapes other than sets of intersecting lines and for more cautious interpretation of Arrhenius plot “breaks” with regard to their physical basis.     

Synergic Effect of Exercise and Lipoic Acid on Protection Against Kainic Acid Induced Seizure Activity and Oxidative Stress in Mice

Anti-convulsant effects of physical exercise and lipoic acid (LA), also referred to as thioctic acid with antioxidant activity, were investigated using chemical induced seizure model. We investigated the synergic effect of physical exercise and LA on kainic acid-induced seizure activity caused by oxidative stress. After 8 weeks of swimming training, body weight decreased and endurance capacity increased significantly compared to sedentary mice. Kainic acid (30 mg/kg, i.p.) evoked seizure activity 5 min after injection, and seizure activity peaked approximately 80 min after kainic acid treatment. Median seizure activity score in KA only treated group was 4.55 (range 0.5–5), 3.45 for “LA + KA” group (range 0.5–4.3), 3.12 for “EX + KA” group (range 0.05–3.4, p < 0.05 vs. “KA only” group), 2.13 for “EX + LA + KA” group (range 0.5–3.0, p < 0.05 vs. “EX + KA” group). Also, there was a synergic cooperation of exercise and LA in lowering the mortality in kainic acid treated mice (χ² = 5.45, p = 0.031; “EX + KA” group vs. “LA + EX + KA” group). In addition, the synergic effect of exercise and LA was found in PGx activity compared to separated treatment (“LA + EX + KA”: 37.3 ± 1.36; p < 0.05 vs. “LA + KA” and “EX + KA” group). These results indicate that physical exercise along with LA could be a more efficient method for modulating seizure activity and oxidative stress.     

Metrical analysis of the basicranium of extant hominoids and Australopithecus

The size and shape of the basicranium (seen in norma basilaris) in Homo, Gorilla, Pan, Pongo, and Australopithecus have been studied by recording the relative disposition of midline and bilateral bony landmarks. Fifteen linear measurements and two angles were used to relate the landmarks. The relatively longer and narrower cranial base of Gorilla, Pan, and Pongo is clearly contrasted with the wider, shorter cranial base in Homo sapiens. When the same observations were made on two “robust” and two “gracile” australopithecine crania, marked differences were found between the taxa. In the two “robust” specimens, the foramen magnum is located relatively further forward, and the axis of the petrous temporal bone is aligned more nearly with the coronal plane than in the two “gracile” crania. The implications of this apparent parallelism in basicranial morphology between Homo sapiens and the “robust” australopithecines are discussed.     

Computed Tomography Measurement of Rib Cage Morphometry in Emphysema

Background

Factors determining the shape of the human rib cage are not completely understood. We aimed to quantify the contribution of anthropometric and COPD-related changes to rib cage variability in adult cigarette smokers.

Methods

Rib cage diameters and areas (calculated from the inner surface of the rib cage) in 816 smokers with or without COPD, were evaluated at three anatomical levels using computed tomography (CT). CTs were analyzed with software, which allows quantification of total emphysema (emphysema%). The relationship between rib cage measurements and anthropometric factors, lung function indices, and %emphysema were tested using linear regression models.

Results

A model that included gender, age, BMI, emphysema%, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV₁)%, and forced vital capacity (FVC)% fit best with the rib cage measurements (R² = 64% for the rib cage area variation at the lower anatomical level). Gender had the biggest impact on rib cage diameter and area (105.3 cm²; 95% CI: 111.7 to 98.8 for male lower area). Emphysema% was responsible for an increase in size of upper and middle CT areas (up to 5.4 cm²; 95% CI: 3.0 to 7.8 for an emphysema increase of 5%). Lower rib cage areas decreased as FVC% decreased (5.1 cm²; 95% CI: 2.5 to 7.6 for 10 percentage points of FVC variation).

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that simple CT measurements can predict rib cage morphometric variability and also highlight relationships between rib cage morphometry and emphysema.     

Body size estimation of small‐bodied humans: Applicability of current methods

Body size (stature and mass) estimates are integral to understanding the lifeways of past populations.Body size estimation of an archaeological skeletal sample can be problematic when the body size or proportions of the population are distinctive. One such population is that of the Holocene Later Stone Age (LSA) of southern Africa, in which small stature (mean femoral length = 407 mm, n = 52) and narrow pelves (mean bi‐iliac breadth = 210 mm, n = 50) produce a distinctive adult body size/shape, making it difficult to identify appropriate body size estimation methods. Material culture, morphology, and culture history link the Later Stone Age people with the descendant population collectively known as the Khoe‐San. Stature estimates based on skeletal “anatomical” linear measures (the Fully method) and on long bone length are compared, along with body mass estimates derived from “morphometric” (bi‐iliac breath/stature) and “biomechanical” (femoral head diameter) methods, in a LSA adult skeletal sample (n = 52) from the from coastal and near‐coastal regions of South Africa. Indices of sexual dimorphism (ISD) for each method are compared with data from living populations. Fully anatomical stature is most congruent with Olivier's femur + tibia method, although both produce low ISD. McHenry's femoral head body mass formula produces estimates most consistent with the bi‐iliac breadth/staturemethod for the females, although the males display higher degrees of disagreement among methods. These results highlight the need for formulae derived from reference samples from a wider range of body sizes to improve the reliability of existing methods. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

New insights into hidradenitis suppurativa diagnosis via salivary infrared biosignatures: A pilot study

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease which can lead to a prolonged physical disability. HS diagnosis is exclusively clinical with the absence of biomarkers. Our study aims at assessing the HS-diagnostic potential of infrared spectroscopy from saliva, as a biofluid reflecting the body's pathophysiological state. Infrared spectra from 127 patients (57 HS and 70 non-HS) were processed by multivariate methods: principal component analysis coupled with Kruskal–Wallis or Mann–Whitney tests to identify discriminant spectral wavenumbers and linear discriminant analysis to evaluate the performances of HS-diagnostic approach. Infrared features, mainly in the 1300 cm⁻¹-1600 cm⁻¹ region, were identified as discriminant for HS and prediction models revealed diagnostic performances of about 80%. Tobacco and obesity, two main HS risk factors, do not seem to alter the infrared diagnosis. This pilot study shows the potential of salivary “liquid biopsy” associated to vibrational spectroscopy to develop a personalized medical approach for HS patients' management.     

INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN SPERM COMPETITION SUCCESS OF YELLOW DUNG FLIES,SCATOPHAGA STERCORARIA

Intraspecific variation in the proportion of offspring sired by the second male to mate with a female (P₂) is an aspect of sperm competition that has received little attention. We examined variation in the sperm competition success of individual male dung flies, Scatophaga stercoraria. In unmanipulated matings, copula duration was dependent on male size with smaller males copulating for longer. A principal component analysis was used to generate uncorrelated scores based on a male's size and copula duration. Using these scores demonstrated that P₂ values were dependent both on the relative size and copula durations of competing males. When copula duration was held constant, the success of an individual male increased as his body size, relative to the first male, increased. We interrupted copulations of “large” and “small” second males and fitted the resultant P₂ values to a linear model of sperm competition with unequal ejaculates. The data fit well to a model of sperm displacement in which sperm mix quickly on introduction to the sperm stores. Furthermore, they show that “large” males have a greater rate of sperm displacement than “small” males. The levels of prey availability during testis maturation may influence a male's success in sperm competition although his immediate mating history does not. We show why an understanding of variation in sperm competition success is important for understanding the mechanisms and evolutionary significance of sperm competition.     

Viscosity-molecular weight relationships,intrinsic chain flexibility,and dynamic solution properties of guar galactomannan

Molecular theories of the viscosity of dilute and more concentrated solutions of random-coil polymers have been applied to five molecular-weight fractions of guar galactomannan. The variation in intrinsic viscosity ([η]; dL.g^?1) with molecular weight (M_r) followed the relationship [η] = 3.8 × 10^?4) M_r^0.723, consistent with random-coil behaviour. The intrinsic stiffness of the galactomannan backbone was estimated by evaluating the “characteristic ratio” C_∝, which is ～ 12.6 and agrees well with results for carboxymethylcellulose, which has a closely similar, β-(1→4)-linked polymer backbone. At intermediate concentrations (c), up to specific viscosities of ～ 10, η_sp was proportional to c^1.3, while at higher concentrations, η_sp was ～c^5.1. This exponent is higher than is usually observed for polymers interacting purely by physical entanglement, and is evidence for more specific polymer-polymer interactions (“hyperentanglements”). The concentration dependence and the time-scale of entanglement coupling have been monitored by both steady-shear and oscillatory measurements, and a generality of response has been demonstrated.     

FISHER'S MODEL AND THE GENOMICS OF ADAPTATION: RESTRICTED PLEIOTROPY,HETEROGENOUS MUTATION,AND PARALLEL EVOLUTION

Genetic theories of adaptation generally overlook the genes in which beneficial substitutions occur, and the likely variation in their mutational effects. We investigate the consequences of heterogeneous mutational effects among loci on the genetics of adaptation. We use a generalization of Fisher's geometrical model, which assumes multivariate Gaussian stabilizing selection on multiple characters. In our model, mutation has a distinct variance–covariance matrix of phenotypic effects for each locus. Consequently, the distribution of selection coefficients s varies across loci. We assume each locus can only affect a limited number of independent linear combinations of phenotypic traits (restricted pleiotropy), which differ among loci, an effect we term “orientation heterogeneity.” Restricted pleiotropy can sharply reduce the overall proportion of beneficial mutations. Orientation heterogeneity has little impact on the shape of the genomic distribution, but can substantially increase the probability of parallel evolution (the repeated fixation of beneficial mutations at the same gene in independent populations), which is highest with low pleiotropy. We also consider variation in the degree of pleiotropy and in the mean s across loci. The latter impacts the genomic distribution of s, but has a much milder effect on parallel evolution. We discuss these results in the light of evolution experiments.     

The use of steady-state treatment in the rapid kinetics of horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase. The effect of addition of product on the "burst" reaction.

The effect of addition of product on the amplitude of the “burst” reaction of horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase was studied using a stopped-flow spectrophotofluorimeter. The amplitude of the “burst” formation of enzyme-bound NADH fluorescence was completely diminished by the addition of excess acetaldehyde or benzaldehyde in the reaction with NAD⁺ and ethanol or NAD⁺ and benzylalcohol, respectively. The results indicate that a significant concentration of the ternary enzyme-coenzyme-substrate complex was formed during the steady-state in the presence of product, and this ternary complex did not exhibit NADH fluorescence. The dissociation constants for the ternary complex were determined from the amplitudes of the “burst” reactions. The “active site” titration of the enzyme with NAD⁺ in the presence of ethanol and iso-butyramide is also described.     

Zooarcheological evidence for the faunal exploitation behavior of Neandertals and early modern humans

The study of the origins of modern humans continues to be a dynamic, quickly changing field, as shown by the recent extraction and analysis of DNA from the Neander Valley fossils.¹ The dynamic nature of the field partly arises from the clearly defined opposing models for the origins of modern humans,² and the spirited defense of the opposing models by the main protagonists in the debate. Although the “Out-of-Africa” and “Multiregional Continuity Models” are typically argued from the perspective of biological evolution, with the debates centering on anatomical and molecular evidence, the behavioral side of the question is of equal significance. Even though the anatomical record will always be a productive avenue for behavioral reconstruction,^3,4 archeology remains the major contributor to our understanding of the behavioral side of this debate.     

REGIONAL,LOCAL AND MICROGEOGRAPHIC ALLELE FREQUENCY VARIATION BETWEEN APPLE AND HAWTHORN POPULATIONS OF RHAGOLETIS POMONELLA IN WESTERN MICHIGAN

In the preceding study (Feder et al., 1990), we report that paired apple and hawthorn infesting populations of Rhagoletis pomonella are genetically differentiated for six allozymes. Here, we show that patterns of intra- and inter-host allele frequency variation seen for these six loci across the eastern United States are consistent on a more fine grained spatial scale in western Michigan. Malic enzyme, Aconitase-2, Mannose phosphate isomerase, and Hydroxyacid dehydrogenase all displayed significant linear relationships with latitude among five “regional” hawthorn populations sampled along a north-south transect between the cities of Cadillac and Portage, Michigan. Clines were not as evident among “regional” apple populations in western Michigan, although allele frequencies for Malic enzyme¹⁰⁰, Mannose phosphate isomerase¹⁰⁰ and Aconitase-2⁹⁵ varied with latitude among six “local” apple populations within a 60 km² area near the town of Grant. Significant allele frequency differences were observed between hawthorn and apple populations at all “regional” and “local” collecting sites analyzed in the study (a total of 20 different apple and hawthorn populations). As was the case in the geographic survey of the eastern United States, the magnitude and pattern of inter-host frequency differences at “regional” and “local” sites were a function of latitude. Host related genetic differentiation was consistent on a “microgeographic” scale as well. Allele frequencies for Malic enzyme¹⁰⁰ and Aconitase-2⁹⁵ were significantly higher over a four-year period (1984 to 1987) for flies sampled from individual hawthorn trees (N = 6) than apple trees (N = 7) within an old field (0.09-km² area) located near Grant. The fine level of genetic subdivision between hawthorn and apple populations of R. pomonella in western Michigan substantiates the existence of host associated polymorphism in the fly and supports a sympatric mode of divergence for the “apple race”.