Molecular phylogeny of the free-living archezoanTrepomonas agilis and the nature of the first eukaryote

We have sequenced the small ribosomal subunit RNA gene of the diplozoanTrepomonas agilis. This provides the first molecular information on a free-living archezoan. We have performed a phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood, parsimony, and distance methods for all available nearly complete archezoan small subunit ribosomal RNA genes and for representatives of all major groups of more advanced eukaryotes (metakaryotes). These show Diplozoa as the earliest-diverging eukaryotic lineage, closely followed by microsporidia.Trepomonas proves to be much more closely related toHexamita, and, to a lesser degree, toSpironucleus, than toGiardia. The close relationship between the free-livingTrepomonas on our trees and the parasitesHexamita inflata andSpironucleus refutes the idea that the early divergence of the amitochondrial Archezoa is an artefact caused by parasitism. The deep molecular divergence between the three phagotrophic genera with two cytostomes (Hexamita, Trepomonas, Spironucleus) and the saprotrophicGiardia that lacks cytostomes is in keeping with the classical evidence for a fundamental difference in the symmetry of the cytoskeleton between the two groups. We accordingly separate the two groups as two orders: Distomatida for those with two cytostomes/cytopharynxes and Giardiida ord. nov. forGiardia andOctomitus that lack these, and divide each order into two families. We suggest that this fundamental divergence in manner of feeding and in the symmetry of the cytoskeleton evolved in a free-living diplozoan very early indeed in the evolution of the eukaryotic cell, possibly very soon after the origin of the diplokaryotic state (having two nuclei linked together firmly by the cytoskeleton) and before the evolution of parasitism by distomatids and giardiids, which may have colonized animal guts independently. We discuss the possible relationship between the two archezoan phyla (Metamonada and Microsporidia) and the nature of the first eukaryotic cell in the light of our results and other recent molecular data.     

Approaches to reconstruction of early Celtic land-use in the cent ral Neckar region in southwestern Germany

In four early Celtic settlements in the central Neckar region of Baden-Württemberg (Germany), 250 archaeobotanical samples were collected and studied for their plant macrofossils.Hordeum vulgare L. (hulled barley) andTrilicum spella L. (spelt wheat) could be recognized as the main crops, as well asPanicum miliaceum L. (millet) in some places. Legumes andLinum usitatissimum L. (flax) were important crops. Typical field weeds dominated the wild plant remains, but some present-day grassland taxa were abundantly and frequently found. The analysis of the data set of finds of the cereal remains, field weeds and grassland plants was done by Correspondence Analysis, but no significant differences between the various groups were found. Samples dominated by remains of grassland taxa, which could indicate that there were hay meadows, were absent. Consideration of plant macrofossil results as well as archaeological, osteological and pollen analytical data shows that there is likely to have been a land management system of arable fields and grassland. The densely settled fertile central Neckar region could therefore have been intensively utilised, using all available resources. Permanent grasslands in the form of pasture on river floodplains and on dry soils were certainly present. Hay meadows, on the other hand, were not identified. Cultivated plants such asFicus carica L. (fig) andVicia ervilia (L.) Willd. (bitter vetch) as well as some field weeds suggest connections with the Mediterranean lands.     

Using the Tools at Hand: Manual Laterality and Elementary Technology in Cebus spp. and Pan spp.

Cebus and Pan appear to be a remarkable example of evolutionary convergence in behavioral ecology. We examine their apparently analogous solutions to problems posed by laterality of hand function and elementary technology. We scrutinize appropriate published data in a meta-analysis, focusing on Cebus apella and C. capucinus and on Pan paniscus and P. troglodytes. We compare behavioral data in terms of captive versus wild, and tool use versus non-tool use, but notable gaps exist in the data, especially for bonobos. Cebus and Pan spp. are equivalent tool users in captivity, but chimpanzees are notably more extensively so in nature. For hand preference, captive bonobos and wild and captive chimpanzees show ambipreference for non-tool-use patterns. For both Cebus spp. and Pan spp., there is a tendency for individuals to be committed exclusively to one hand or the other for tool use. The data for laterality of hand function fit consistently into the five-level model proposed by McGrew and Marchant (1996).     

Chemical examinations of some non-vascular Paleozoic plants

The organic chemical constituents of compression fossils ofNematothallus,Spongiophyton, Orestovia andEohostimella are identified and compared with those isolated from living and fossil forms ofBotryococcus (a green alga) andTaeniocrada (a vascular plant fossil). The range and maxima in the carbon numbers observed in the normal, saturated acids isolated fromNematothallus, Orestovia, andSpongiophyton are similar to those of fossilBotryococcus, while those acids contained within compression fossils ofEohostimella are similar to the hydrocarbon composition ofTaeniocrada. Isoprenoid, branched hydrocarbons and steroids identified fromNematothallus, Orestovia, andSpongiophyton suggest these genera have algal affinities, while the presence of thick cuticles and in some cases cutin-like compounds appear to show adaptation to a terrestrial environment. Phenolic compounds retained within rock matrices associated withEohostimella are similar to those isolated fromTaeniocrada suggesting chemical, as well as morphological parallels with the land plant habit. These data are interpreted as indicating an early polyphyletic exploitation of the terrestrial habitat during the Paleozoic.     

Autecological investigations on marine diatoms 6:Rhizosolenia robusta Norman,Rhizosolenia imbricata Brightwell andRhizosolenia shrubsolei Cleve

The warm oligo-eurytherm diatomsRhizosolenia robusta Norman andRhizosolenia imbricata Brightwell were cultured to determine the temperature range for the best competitive position by growth. Comparison of their generation times with those of other diatoms indicate thatR. robusta reaches this position around 20 °C andR. imbricata above 25 °C. The temperature ranges for growth were 12 °C up to 28 °C forR. robusta and 12 °C to above 30 °C forR. imbricata. The use of both species as indicator species for warm water currents is discussed on account of their lower temperature limit. The cold oligo-eurytherm diatomRhizosolenia shrubsolei had a temperature range for growth of below –1.0 °C to 25 °C. Our experimental results demonstrate thatR. imbricata andR. shrubsolei can be considered separate species.     

Termite fauna related to differences in tool-use between groups of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Nishida andUehara have contrasted two groups of chimpanzees at the Mahale Mountains in their manner of obtaining termites for food. K-group very rarely used tools, but evidence suggested that B-group did so regularly to fish forMacrotermes. They suggested that this difference was not a cultural one, but was explained by the absence ofMacrotermes in K-group's range. We attempted to test this hypothesis, and here examine the termite fauna in the ranges of the two groups. Our data confirm that termite-fishing was contingent upon the presence ofMacrotermes in B-group's range, and that cultural explanations are not necessary to explain the rarity of tool use by K-group, which instead could catchPseudacanthotermes without using tools. Comparison of the termite faunas in the ranges of K-group, of B-group, and of the chimpanzees at Gombe, suggest that, apart fromMacrotermes, two genera might be the main alternative prey:Pseudacanthotermes, which could be more commonly included in the diet at Gombe, and might also be eaten by B-group, andCubitermes which is available at both these sites.     

Taxonomic,evolutionary, and functional considerations ofCompositae pollen ultrastructure and sculpture

Two basic patterns of exine ultrastructure are found in theCompositae, the caveate Helianthoid pattern and the non-caveate Anthemoid pattern. TheHeliantheae, Astereae, Inuleae, Sececioneae, Calenduleae andEupatorieae all have pollen with caveate exines. TheMutisiseae, Vernonieae andCardueae have predominately Anthemoid pollen. TheAnthemideae, Arctoteae andLactuceae have pollen with exines of both patterns. Recent investigations of pollen in theVernonieae suggest that these exine ultrastructures in the family have evolved in response to mechanical stresses on the wall which are caused by changes in volume of the grain as it loses or gains water from its environment.     

Fossil coniferous wood from the Middle Jurassic of Liaoning Province, China

Silicified coniferous wood was collected from the Lanqi Formation (late Middle Jurassic in age) at Shebudaigou Village, Liaoning Province, China. Three taxa are identified, namely Pinoxylon dacotense Knowlton, Xenoxylon phyllocladoides Gothan, and Araucariopitys sp. Based on these new data, and those of other fossil plants reported previously from the same formation, we consider the climate during the deposition of the Lanqi Formation was subtropical, humid and seasonal. In this respect the Lanqi flora differs from the coeval Shimengou and Longmen floras from North China. The Longmen flora was deposited during more humid, subtropical conditions, while the Shimengou Formation indicates that the climate was warm temperate and dry. Our data would suggest that the Late Jurassic climatic pattern was initiated as early as the late Middle Jurassic.     

Allozyme variation within and between populations inLolium (Poaceae)

Isozyme analysis was used to determine genetic variation within and between populations of sevenLolium species. All populations from the inbreeding species (L. temulentum, L. remotum, L. loliaceum, andL. persicum) were completely fixed for all enzymes scored. They also contained, for four of the five enzyme systems studied, exactly the same allelic variant. The three cross-breeding species showed large within-population variation and much less between-population variation. The great similarity of the allozymic variants found in all species, made the division of the genusLolium into species on basis of allozymic data difficult. It was not possible to separate the different inbreeding species from each other. Within the cross-breeding groupL. multiflorum andL. rigidum could be distinguished fromL. perenne. L. multiflorum, andL. rigidum could, with more difficulty, also be separated from each other. Allelic variation could have more relation with the provenance of the populations than with taxonomic classification.Genetic variation inLolium spp. II. For first part see Pl. Syst. Evol. 188: 87–99.     

Identification of bacteria contaminating pulp and a paper machine in a Canadian paper mill

Over 100 bacteria from pulp and slime samples in a Canadian paper mill were identified by partial sequencing of their 16S rDNAs. Seventy-one percent of the isolates could be assigned to a bacterial genus with a high level of confidence. Another 12% exhibited at least 95% similarity within their 16S rDNA sequence with unidentified organisms that originate from warm or wet environments. Pseudomonas, Bacillus, and Pseudoxanthomonas isolates were represented at a relatively high proportion in both pulp and slime samples. This is the first time that Pseudoxanthomonas strains have been isolated from pulp and slime samples on a paper machine. Electronic Publication     

Cranial morphology of the golden monkey (Rhinopithecus) and douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus)

Because they have been less studied than most other non-human primates (partly due to the difficulties in accessing their habitat) the origins and phylogenetic relationships ofR. roxellana andR. bieti are controversial. These controversies may be clarified to some degree by adding information on the cranium. To this end, ten cranial dimensions analysed morphometrically here provide data about cranial differences among species of the genusRhinopithecus, and between species ofRhinopithecus andPygathrix nemaeus. Though more similar to each other than to any others in the same genus, the results show a significant separation betweenR. roxellana andR. bieti to the degree that they may be regarded as two different species. This confirms the conclusions of prior studies of external features, qualitative morphological characteristics and biochemical evidence (Yeet al, 1987; Zhang and Ryder, 1995; Jablonski, 1998; Penget al., 1988). The differences between these two species are mainly size-related, being highly correlated with cranial length. Other differences, probably non-size related shape differences, however, are highly correlated with cranial width. Sexual dimorphism plays a part in these findings. In relation to the other species, however, the results show that the Vietnam golden monkey (R. avunculus) has closer craniometric relationships with the douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus) rather than with the three Chinese golden monkey species. Of these, the Gouzhou species (R. brelichi) shares more similarity withR. avunculus and is more separate fromRhinopithecus roxellana and R. bieti. The smaller differentiation between the two latter species could be due to their more recent separation following the dramatic elevation of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau after the Middle Pleistocene.     

Identification and cultivation of EuropeanVolvox spp.

The three European species ofVolvox have repeatedly been described, also from other countries. There have remained, however, some open questions, particularly in connexion with the morphological differences betweenV. aureus andV. tertius. These species, up to now, could not readily be distinguished but can be told apart on the strength of the structure of the covering layers of the colonial envelope.The nutritional requirements have attracted little attention. The scarce statements in the literature have only been attained in investigations of a general character and needed a more thorough investigation. It was found that all three species require vitamin B₁₂, andV. globator also vitamin B₁. This species flourished only when provided with small amounts of acetate.     

Bioenergetics of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) on Kinkazan Island during winter

An adult female Japanese monkey was chosen as a focal animal in order to assess the nutritional condition of the species during winter on Kinkazan Island, which is covered by deciduous forest of the cool temperate zone. Five whole-day-long observations were performed at the end of November (late autumn) and also at the end of February (late winter). In November, the daily energy intake and protein intake were estimated to be 1,449 kcal and 36 g, respectively: both satisfied the intake requirement even in view of a digestibility of 55%. These findings suggest that the focal animal could accumulate body fat in November. In contrast, in February, the daily energy intake and protein intake were estimated to be 556 kcal and 12 g, respectively: both did not satisfy the intake requirement in view of a digestibility of 55%. These findings suggest that the focal animal consumed accumulated body fat in February. Various data for food intake, nutritional content, etc. on Kinkazan were compared with those on Koshima, which is covered by evergreen forest of the warm temperate zone. The nutritional intake in February on Kinkazan was much smaller than that in November on Kinkazan as well as those in November and February on Koshima. The small intake of the former appeared to be strongly influenced by the sign ficantly lower speed of dry weight intake, which derived partly from the significantly lighter unit weight of the food items (e.g., buds ofZanthoxylum piperitum, Castanea crenata, andCornus macrophylla; leaves and stems ofOplismenus uadulatifolius andZoysia japonica). The monkeys on Kinkazan Island increased their food diversity, shortened their daily travel distance, and avoided repeated use of sites within their home range to offset the deterioration of the food quality in February.     

Duplicate Genes and the Root of Angiosperms, with an Example Using Phytochrome Sequences

The root of the angiosperm tree has not yet been established. Major morphological and molecular differences between angiosperms and other seed plants have introduced ambiguities and possibly spurious results. Because it is unlikely that extant species more closely related to angiosperms will be discovered, and because relevant fossils will almost certainly not yield molecular data, the use of duplicate genes for rooting purposes may provide the best hope of a solution. Simultaneous analysis of the genes resulting from a gene duplication event along the branch subtending angiosperms would yield an unrooted network, wherein two congruent gene trees should be connected by a single branch. In these circumstances the best rooted species tree is the one that corresponds to the two gene trees when the network is rooted along the connecting branch. In general, this approach can be viewed as choosing among rooted species trees by minimizing hypothesized events such as gene duplication, gene loss, lineage sorting, and lateral transfer. Of those gene families that are potentially relevant to the angiosperm problem, phytochrome genes warrant special attention. Phylogenetic analysis of a sample of complete phytochrome (PHY) sequences implies that an initial duplication event preceded (or occurred early within) the radiation of seed plants and that each of the two resulting copies duplicated again. In one of these cases, leading to thePHYAandPHYClineages, duplication appears to have occurred before the diversification of angiosperms. Duplicate gene trees are congruent in these broad analyses, but the sample of sequences is too limited to provide much insight into the rooting question. Preliminary analyses of partialPHYAandPHYCsequences from several presumably basal angiosperm lineages are promising, but more data are needed to critically evaluate the power of these genes to resolve the angiosperm radiation.     

Heavy metals in sewage sludges contribute to their adverse effects on the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus<Emphasis Type="Italic">Glomus mosseae</Emphasis>

Applying sewage sludges to agricultural land is a widespread practice because of the sludges’ agronomic value as a source of plant nutrients and organic matter. Nevertheless, sludges often contain micropollutants that can constitute a menace for health and the environment. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are sensitive to sewage sludges that have been spiked, or not, with metallic trace elements (MTE). Here we have investigated if MTE in sewage sludges could be responsible for effects on mycorrhizal development betweenGlomus mosseae andMedicago truncatula. The impact of a dehydrated or composted urban sewage sludge spiked or not with MTE, was tested on spore germination and root colonization byG. mosseae. The sewage sludges depressed both the presymbiotic andin planta stages of development of the mycorrhizal fungus. This negative effect was more related to the metallic pollutant contents of the sludges than to the presence of antagonistic microorganisms or phosphorus.     

Morphometric analysis ofMacaca arctoides andM. thibetana in relation to other macaque species

As a first step in reviewing the classification of the two stump-tailed macaque species,Macaca arctoides andM. thibetana, as compared with other species of the genusMacaca, 72 linear dental and cranial variables of 11 macaque species were examined by morphometric analyses. The results indicate that the two stump-tailed species are the largest of the macaques and although rather similar overall, they exhibit significant differences in the pattern of variation in most of the five skull regions as shown by Principal Components and Canonical Variate Analyses. Euclidean Distances based on Canonical Variate scores indicate that the females ofM. arctoides andM. thibetana are more widely separated than eight other pairs of macaque species, and that the separations of the respective males are greater than those of three other pairs of species. These findings are consistent withFooden's classification of the stump-tailed macaques as two separate species (Fooden, 1976;Fooden et al., 1985). The present results suggest, as other researchers have proposed on the basis of external features, biochemistry and genetics, that the two stump-tailed macaque species andM. assamensis are closely related. The results also tentatively imply associations withM. fuscata andM. sylvanus but these require further study. The findings have implications for the assessment of the various Chinese Pleistocene macaque fossils.     

Late-glacial and Holocene vegetation and climate change at the Palü glacier, Bernina Pass, Grisons Canton, Switzerland

Pollen and macrofossil data from Alpe PAlü, south-eastern Switzerland, are presented. On the basis of these data and the geomorphological evidence for local glacier movement, Holocene climatic oscillations and vegetation change at this upland site (1940 m asl), are reconstructed. The morainic deposits and glacial clays, as well as the pollen data from the base of the pollen profile, clearly show that the Palü glacier, after its retreat from the Cavaglia (Egesen) stade, readvanced once again shortly before the mid-Preboreal. This re-advance was considerably greater than that dating to the Little Ice Age. This early Holocene climatic event is referred to as the Palü Oscillation (Palü-Schwankung) and is considered to be broadly contemporaneous with the previously described Schlaten Oscillation (Schlate n-Schwankung) in the Austrian Alps. The reforestation of the forefield of the moraine was interrupted at least twice during this oscillation, and, compared with neighbouring sites at the same altitude, it appears to be at least 500–700 years younger, i. e. it post-dates 9400 B.P. Though the Palü Oscillation is a Holocene phenomenon, the associated vegetation changes are Late-glacial in character, e.g.Arlemisia and Chenopodiaceae increase andHippophaë is recorded.Alnus viridis replacesBelula andSalix, which were important in the earlier part of the Holocene, at about 5000 B.P. There is no clear evidence that forest burning is attributable to human activity. The use ofLarix-dominated areas as pasture (Lärchwiesen) begins in the mid-Bronze Age. A strong decline inPicea (spruce) andLarix (larch), and an increase in Poaceae,Plantago and other herbs in the uppermost horizons reflect more intensive pastoral farming that began in the high Middle Ages.     

Experimental studies of evolution inAnthoxanthum (Gramineae)

Hybridization reveals the close affinity ofAnthoxanthum odoratum and the Mediterranean annualA. ovatum. A. alpinum is genetically somewhat more isolated; occasional sterile hybrids withA. ovatum can be obtained.Morphology reveals an affinity betweenA. odoratum andA. ovatum. There are nodiagnostic characters linkingA. odoratum toA. alpinum.The perennial nature of the generality ofA. odoratum, plus phenotypic flexibility and an ability to behave as an annual in particular habitats, suggest an affinity both toA. alpinum (winter-hardy perennial) andA. ovatum (variable annual or occasional biennial).The artificial allotetraploid based on the sterile hybrid betweenA. alpinum andA. ovatum simulatesA. odoratum, more closely than do either of the diploids.Experimental observations suggest a very reasonable possibility that a similar sequence of events perhaps occurring on several occasions under natural conditions could have given rise to the tetraploid speciesA. odoratum.     

Bipedal behavior of olive baboons (Papio anubis) and its relevance to an understanding of the evolution of human bipedalism

The bipedal behavior of a troop of olive baboons (Papio anubis) is described. Bipedalism is relatively rare but nevertheless occurs in a wide variety of situations, although bipedalism during feeding occurs much more frequently than in other situations. The incidence of bipedalism varies between different age-sex classes and between individuals within age-sex classes. This pattern of bipedalism occurred within an overall adaptive response, particularly in feeding behavior, which was similar to that of the gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada). The data on bipedalism is used together with an existing model of early hominid differentiation based on T. gelada to indicate the types of bipedal behavior which might have occurred in early hominid small object feeders and to suggest how a bipedal pattern of this type might have served as a basis for the action of selection for a more committedly bipedal pattern at later stages of hominid evolution.