Elaeophorosis in bighorn sheep in New Mexico

Two bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in New Mexico (USA) were found to be naturally infected with Elaeophora schneideri. An adult ram examined in 1997 in the Fra Cristobal Mountains had 26 nematodes in the carotid and iliac arteries, and microfilariae were present in the skin, nasal mucosa, brain, and lungs. This ram was markedly debilitated prior to euthanasia and extensive crusty, scabby lesions were observed on its head. In 1998, a yearling ewe found dead adjacent to Watson Mountain near the Gila Wilderness area was found to have 13 nematodes present in its heart. This is the first report of E. schneideri in bighorn sheep, and we suggest that bighorn sheep are susceptible to E. schneideri infection wherever they coexist with mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and appropriate tabanid vectors.     

Onchocercosis in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Spain.

Onchocercosis, caused by Onchocerca flexuosa, was observed in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Spain for the first time. Adult specimens of P. flexuosa were found in nodules in subcutaneous tissues in 42 of 125 (33%) red deer between October 1994 and September 1995; intensity of infection +/- SD was 3.93 +/- 5.26 nodules per infected host. A clear seasonal pattern in the distribution of nodules was observed, with higher values of prevalence and intensity in fall and winter in contrast to spring and summer. Significant differences were found among age groups in prevalence, but not in the mean intensity. No differences in infection were apparent between male and female adult red deer.     

Elaeophorosis in sika deer in Texas.

Elaeophora schneideri was found in sika deer (Cervus nippon) from several areas in Texas. The parasite produced unilateral tumorous masses on the head and/or feet. This is the first report of E. schneideri in Texas.     

First observation of Elaeophora schneideri Wehr and Dikmans, 1935 (Nematoda:Filariidae) in mule deer from Nebraska

Between November 2000 and November 2005, approximately 200 mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from western Nebraska were extensively examined for the presence of Elaeophora schneideri, Wehr and Dikmans, 1935; three adult E. schneideri were detected from three mule deer. This represents the first documented occurrence of E. schneideri from wild deer in Nebraska.     

Establishment of adult Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, patent infections, and acquired immunity after experimental infection of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus)

Experimental Parelaphostrongylus tenuis infections were established in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and an atypical host, red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus). Groups of deer were fed 10, 25, or 100 third-stage larvae (L3) of P. tenuis and received a single equivalent challenge exposure at varying intervals. Infections were monitored up to 6 yr in white-tailed deer and up to 2.8 yr in red deer. The prepatent period in white-tailed deer varied from 91 to 1,072 days (381 +/- 374) and in red deer from 105 to 358 days (167 +/- 77). Adult worms lived for up to 6 yr in white-tailed deer. Although most had patent infections until necropsy, latent periods were observed regardless of season. Adult worms lived for up to 2.8 yr in red deer, and patent infections persisted for 20-363 days (152 +/- 106). Patent infections were correlated with the presence of adult worms in blood vessels and sinuses of both deer species. Worms were restricted to the subdural space in all deer with latent and occult infections. Adult worm recovery in white-tailed deer fed 10 or 25 L3 corresponded to the mean intensities reported in natural infections of white-tailed deer Recovery from deer fed 100 L3 was not typical of natural infection intensities. Adult P. tenuis established in all groups of red deer, but neurologic disease was restricted to animals fed 100 L3. Acute neurologic disease was associated with subdural hemorrhage and occurred at 11 mo postinfection in 2 red deer. The absence of postchallenge patent periods and the persistence of occult infections indicated that challenge exposures did not establish. These data indicate that acquired immunity to P. tenuis was established by 6 mo postinfection in both white-tailed and red deer. Latent periods in white-tailed deer and latent infections in red deer reinforce the need for a reliable diagnostic assay.     

Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei (Nematoda: Protostrongylidae) and a protostrongylid nematode in woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) of Alberta, Canada

Two size-groups of dorsal-spined, first-stage, nematode larvae were found in feces of woodland caribou, Rangifer tarandus caribou (Gmelin), in Alberta from 1976-1982. Larvae from caribou feces in northeastern Alberta were 451 +/- 17 micrograms in length, while those from west-central Alberta were 362 +/- 18 micrograms in length. Larvae collected from west-central Alberta developed to the infective stage, experimentally, in the terrestrial gastropod Triodopsis multilineata (Say) and were infective to captive mule deer fawns, Odocoileus H. hemionus (Rafinesque). Adult nematodes, identified as Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei (Hobmaier and Hobmaier, 1934), were recovered from the skeletal muscles of the mule deer.     

Elaeophorosis in white-tailed deer: pathology of the natural disease and its relation to oral food impactions

The lesions of naturally occurring elaeophorosis in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were studied. Arterial changes caused by adult Elaeophora schneideri occurred mainly in cephalic arteries and were characterized by circumferential intimal thickening, disruption of the internal elastic lamina, and verminous thrombosis. Microfilariae caused focal necrosis and fibrosis in the myocardium, but produced only minor changes in other tissues. Radiographic studies indicated that E. schneideri can cause impairment of the cephalic arterial circulation in white-tailed deer. Eleven of 14 (78%) infected deer had oral food impactions, with sublingual impactions being most common. Seven deer with impactions had other oral pathologic conditions, such as gingivitis, loose or absent premolar and/or molar teeth, and remodeling and/or lysis of mandibular bone. The evidence indicates a relation between food impactions and infection by E. schneideri in white-tailed deer, but no definitive connection was established.     

Genetic structure of,and hybridisation between,red (Cervus elaphus) and sika (Cervus nippon) deer in Ireland

This study investigated the levels of genetic diversity and variation exhibited by red and sika deer in Ireland, along with the extent and regional location of hybridisation between these two species. Bi-parental (microsatellites) and maternally-inherited (mitochondrial DNA) genetic markers were utilised that allowed comparisons between 85 red deer from six localities and 47 sika deer from 3 localities in Ireland. Population genetic structure was assessed using Bayesian analysis, indicating the existence of two genetic clusters in sika deer and three clusters in red deer. Levels of genetic diversity were low in both red and sika deer. These genetic data presented herein indicate a recent introduction of sika deer and subsequent translocations in agreement with historical data. The origins of the current red deer populations found in Ireland, based on genetic data presented in this study, still remain obscure. All hybrid deer (red/sika) found in this study were found in Wicklow, Galway and Mayo where the ‘red-like’ deer exhibited sika deer alleles/haplotypes, and vice versa in the case of Wicklow. Molecular methods proved invaluable in the identification of the hybrid deer because identification of hybrids based on phenotypic external appearances (pelage and body proportions) can be misleading. Areas where red and sika deer are sympatric need to be assessed for the level and extent of hybridisation occurring and thus need to be managed in order to protect the genetic integrity of ‘pure’ red deer populations.     

天山马鹿南山种群肠道寄生虫的流行病学调查

为了解野生天山马鹿胃肠道寄生虫感染情况,2011 年10 月至2012 年6 月和2012 年9 月,利用漂浮法和沉淀法,对分布于新疆乌鲁木齐南山山区天山马鹿的306 份马鹿粪便进行了调查。结果表明,天山马鹿寄生虫感染情况较为严重,主要有鞭虫卵、蛔虫卵、球虫卵、线虫卵和幼虫,总感染率高达85. 6% 。其中鞭虫卵、蛔虫卵、球虫卵及其他(未能鉴定分类的线虫卵和幼虫)的平均感染率分别为78.1% 、56. 9% 、0.7% 和25. 8% ,感染强度(EPG)分别为106.4、8. 6、0.9 和3.9,其中鞭虫卵占优势。混合感染情况比较严重,鞭虫卵和蛔虫卵的混合感染率为最高,可达44% 。     

Observations on epizootiology and distribution of Elaeophora schneideri in Montana ruminants.

Seventy-four moose, 111 elk, 20 mule deer, 8 white-tailed deer, 26 prong-horn antelope, 42 domestic sheep and 3 bighorn sheep from Montana or northwestern Wyoming were examined post-mortem for evidence of Elaeophora schneideri infection in 1973-74. Fifteen percent of the mule deer and four percent of the moose were positive for adult arterial worms. This constitutes the first report of E. schneideri in mule deer in Montana. No gross signs of blindness or other neurologic disorder were evident in the infected animals. Potential horsefly intermediate hosts collected in the enzootic area included Hybomitra rhombica osburni, H. tetrica, H. metabola, Chrysops noctifer pertinax and Atylotus incisuralis.     

Genetic influences on reproduction of female red deer (Cervus elaphus) (2) seasonal and genetic effects on the superovulatory response to exogenous FSH

This study evaluated the influences of seasons and genotype on the superovulatory response to a standardised oFSH regimen in red deer (Cervus elaphus scoticus) and its hybrids with either wapiti (C.e. nelsoni) or Père David's (PD) deer (Elaphurus davidianus). Adult red deer (n=9), F(1) hybrid wapiti x red deer (n=6), and maternal backcross hybrid PD x red deer (i.e., 14 PD hybrid; n=9) were kept together in the presence of a vasectomised stag for 13 months. At 6 weekly intervals, all hinds received a standardised treatment regimen used routinely to induce a superovulatory response in red deer hinds, with 10 consecutive treatments spanning an entire year. This involved synchronisation with intravaginal progesterone devices and delivery of multiple injections of oFSH (equivalent to 72 units NIH-FSH-S(1)). Laparoscopy to assess ovarian response was performed 6-7 days after the removal of the devices. Both season and genotype had significant effects on ovulation rate (OR) and total follicular stimulation (TFS) (P<0.05). For all the three genotypes, ovarian responses were highest from March to November (breeding season) and lowest in the period from December to January, inclusive. Mean OR for red deer hinds ranged from 3.7 to 1.8 during the breeding season, with no observable trend. All red deer hinds were anovulatory during December and January. A similar pattern occurred for 14 PD hybrids, although mean OR during the breeding seasons were twofold lower than for the red deer. For F(1) wapiti hybrids, the first two treatments in March and April resulted in the highest mean OR observed (15.6 and 11.7, respectively). Thereafter, mean values ranged between 6.3 and 4.7 for the remainder of the breeding season. Furthermore, mean OR of 3.0 and 0.5 were recorded in December and January, respectively. For the red deer and F(1) wapiti hybrids, between-hind variation in OR was not randomly distributed across the treatment dates, indicating that the individuals varied significantly in their ability to respond to oFSH, at least within a given season.In conclusion, the study has shown that relative to red deer, F(1) wapiti hybrid hinds exhibit a higher sensitivity to oFSH, whereas 14 PD hybrid hinds have a lower sensitivity. However, individual variation within genotype was very marked. A seasonal effect was apparent for all genotypes, although some F(1) wapiti hybrid hinds exhibited ovulatory responses throughout the year.     

Elaeophorosis in Barbary sheep and mule deer from the Texas Panhandle

Adult Elaeophora schneideri were recovered from the common carotid artery and its branches in 14 of 14 mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus, and 3 of 9 Barbary sheep or aoudads, Ammotragus lervia, from Palo Duro Canyon in the Texas Panhandle. Gross cutaneous lesions attributable to elaeophorosis in the Barbary sheep varied from small circumscribed scars up to 10 cm in diameter usually on the poll or orbital region to extensive proliferative irregular encrustations on the frontal, temporal and orbital regions, sometimes extending to the ears and muzzle. Individual lesions varied from slate-gray scarred areas to brown proliferative edematous and hyperemic encrustations, sometimes with depigmented pustules a few millimeters in diameter. Microscopic lesions ranged from granulation tissue to severe pyogranulomatous reactions with neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells as the primary infiltration. Foreign body giant cells and/or microfilariae were not observed. Microscopic changes in the carotid arteries and their branches were limited to small villous projections on the intimal surface apparently resulting from medial hyperplasia. Cutaneous lesions attributable to elaeophorosis were not observed in mule deer. Histopathologic lesions in the carotid arteries of mule deer were similar to those observed in Barbary sheep. The comparative pathology of elaeophorosis in various hosts is reviewed and discussed in terms of its pathology in Barbary sheep. The potential ramifications of this infection on the expanding aoudad population in the southwestern United States require that elaeophorosis be considered in the management of this species, particularly in areas with sympatric mule deer populations.     

Phylogeography and founder effect of the endangered Corsican red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus corsicanus</Emphasis>)

Red deer (n = 149) from eight geographical locations, including the endangered endemic populations from the Tyrrhenian islands (Sardinia and Corsica), were analysed at eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Two questions were addressed: (1) Is there a founder effect in the Corsican population, which was reintroduced to the island using Sardinian deer after the species’ extinction on Corsica? (2) What is the origin of the Tyrrhenian or Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)? Our results showed signs of a founder effect for the red deer on Corsica in that these deer showed differentiation from the Sardinian population as measured by F_ST values, assignment tests (with and without a priori definition of populations) and individual-based dendrograms. Genetic variability, however, did not differ significantly between the two populations. With respect to the phylogeography of C. e. corsicanus we found that both deer from North-Africa and Mesola on the Italian mainland were genetically close to the Corsican red deer, but phylogenetic trees based on genetic distances were only poorly supported statistically. Among all populations studied the Mesola red deer showed the lowest distance values from Corsican red deer and yielded allele frequencies that were more similar to those of C. e. corsicanus than were those of North-African red deer. These results are in line with recent palaeontological and archaeozoological findings which suggest that the Corsican red deer is derived from small Italian red deer introduced from the mainland to Sardinia and Corsica during the Late Neolithic and just before the beginning of Classical Antiquity, respectively. They also suggest a possible recent introduction of Tyrrhenian red deer to North-Africa (rather than the other way around), thus accounting for the close genetic relationship (especially based on mitochondrial DNA) that has repeatedly been found between C. e. corsicanus and C. e. barbarus.     

A search for Parelaphostrongylus andersoni in white-tailed deer from Maine.

Longissimus dorsi muscles from 42 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Maine (USA) were examined for the Parelaphostrongylus andersoni. No adult nematodes were found. Prevalence based on the Poisson approximation of a binomial distribution could have been between 0 and 9% (95% C.I.). However, based on prevalence documented elsewhere (10 to 18%), it is unlikely that P. andersoni occurs in white-tailed deer in central Maine.     

Phylogeography of red deer (Cervus elaphus): Analysis of MtDNA cytochrome b polymorphism

Analysis of MtDNA cytochrome b gene (1140 bp) polymorphism of 106 samples red deer (Cervus elaphus) from different regions of Eurasia was performed; the phylogenetic relationships of groups throughout the entire inhibiting area (including North America) were reconstructed. Totally 75 haplotypes were detected, 33 of which were found in the European and 42 in the Asian part of the area. There were no identical haplotypes for these two parts of the area found. The close relatedness between Siberian red deer (C. e. sibirica) and North American wapiti (C. e. canadensis) was confirmed. Red deer inhibiting Yakutia were close to the Siberian red deer from Altai and Tuva, whereas red deer inhibiting Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk regions formed a separate clade. Overall, the reconstructed phylogeographic pattern of the species was significantly different from the subspecies differentiation based on morphological traits.     

Bovine virus diarrhea virus in free-living deer from Denmark

Free-living deer are suggested as a possible source of infection of cattle with bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) virus. To examine this hypothesis blood samples from 476 free-living deer were collected during two different periods and tested for BVD virus and antibody in Denmark. In 1995-96, 207 animals were tested. These included 149 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 29 fallow deer (Dama dama), 20 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and one sika deer (Cervus sika). For the remaining eight animals no species information was available. In 1998-99, 269 animals were tested including 212 roe deer and 57 red deer. The animals were selected from areas with a relatively high prevalence of cattle herds with a BVD persistent infection status in 1997 and 1998. All 207 samples from 1995-96 were found antibody-negative except two samples from red deer. Only 158 of the 207 samples were tested for virus and were all found negative. Of the 269 samples from 1998-99 all but one were antibody negative. The positive sample was from a red deer. All samples were virus-negative. It appears that BVD infection does not occur in roe deer in Denmark. The presence of antibody in a few red deer from various districts in Jutland probably results from cattle to deer transmission, rather than spread among deer. Hence, the possibility of free-living deer as a source of infection for cattle in Denmark seems to be remote.     

First description of nodular onchocercosis (Onchocerca jakutensis) in free-ranging Italian red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Onchocercosis is a vector-transmitted parasitic disease involving wild and domestic ungulates, humans, and dogs. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) host numerous Onchocerca spp. which have precise anatomic sites in the host and two species, Onchocerca flexuosa Wedl, 1856 and Onchocerca jakutensis Guba-now, 1964, are found inside subcutaneous nodules. Between September and November 2007, subcutaneous nodules were observed on both thighs in shot red deer of a Tuscany population. We observed cystic structures, surrounded by a fibrous capsule, containing nematodes. Filamentous worms were male and female; microfilariae were also described. Although morphologically we could not distinguish between O. flexuosa and O. jakutensis, genetic studies implicated O. jakutensis. This is the first report of this parasite in Italy.     

Seasonal migration of male red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus</Emphasis>) in southern Sweden and consequences for management

Red deer Cervus elaphus is a highly appreciated and intensively managed game species throughout Europe. A common management objective is a sustainable harvest of large trophies. In southern Sweden, management has mainly aimed at preserving the nominate subspecies C. elaphus elaphus. Seasonal migration of red deer males may, however, complicate both harvest management as well as conservation efforts. I used individually identified male red deer in southern Sweden to observe distance travelled from rutting areas to areas used by males in summer and winter. Adult males were identified by antler shape and photo-documented during rut. Photos from the rut were compared to trophies of deer harvested or found dead, to found cast antlers and to stags photographed during summer. From 1969 to 2007, a distance between rutting ground and summer/winter quarters was established for 96 identified stags. An average distance of 14 km and a maximum distance of 47 km were recorded between rut and summer/winter observations. The seasonal migration of males increases the risk of overexploitation of males with harvest in both rutting areas and wintering areas. Harvest management and conservation efforts may fail if males seasonally migrate outside the management unit. The results suggest that seasonal migration must be considered in harvest management and conservation and that there is a need for a regulation of male harvest. Furthermore, the study stresses that the success in deer management of single hunting units, may be largely dependent on the harvest policies in the near surroundings as well as in areas tenths of kilometres away, suggesting that a successful management must rely on co-operation and co-ordination on a landscape scale.     

内蒙古森林—草原交错带中野生东北马鹿冬季食物组成模式

分布于内蒙古森林—草原交错带的东北马鹿(Cervus elaphus xanthopygus)种群,受冬季低温和雪被的影响,对营养和能量的需求发生变化,同时,交错带内植物区系复杂,草本植物覆盖率高,而野生东北马鹿冬季主要以木本植物的嫩枝为食,因此分布于该地区的野生东北马鹿种群将面临食物资源短缺、营养缺乏的潜在威胁。本研究于2019年和2020年冬季,在内蒙古高格斯台罕乌拉国家级自然保护区内,采集野生东北马鹿粪便样本共98份。采用粪便显微分析法了解内蒙古森林—草原交错带中东北马鹿冬季的食物组成,结合去趋势分析法揭示了东北马鹿冬季食物组成模式。对东北马鹿粪便残渣分析发现,东北马鹿冬季共采食22种(科)植物,其中2020年冬季发现东北马鹿大量采食云杉(Picea asperata,9.88%)为其新食物。对东北马鹿食物组成进行去趋势分析发现,两年冬季中多数东北马鹿呈现出以蒙古栎(Quercus mongolica)、山杏(Armeniaca sibirica)、细叶沼柳(Salix rosmarin? ifolia)和家榆(Ulmus pumila)等落叶乔木和灌木为主要食物,同时采食高比例禾本科(Poaceae spp.)植物的食物组成模式;少数个体因食物短缺而呈现出以云杉为主要食物的特殊组成模式。禾本科和云杉是引起东北马鹿冬季食物组成变化的主因。本研究揭示了内蒙古森林—草原交错带中东北马鹿冬季的食物组成模式,为该地区东北马鹿营养生态学的进一步研究与保护管理提供参考依据。