Adrenergic and cholinergic innervation of the prostate in laboratory animals

The prostate innervation has been studied in 50 white rats, 12 rabbits, 12 guinea pigs, 6 cats and 6 dogs. Together with the impregnation techniques, Karnovsky-Roots method has been applied, for revealing cholinergic components, and the incubation method in 2% solution of glyoxylic acid, for revealing adrenergic nervous structures. Density of adrenergic and cholinergic nervous plexuses has been estimated by means of the planimetric point method. The prostate of the laboratory animals possesses well manifested adrenergic and cholinergic nervous plexuses. The organ's alveolus and ducts are covered with adrenergic and cholinergic fibers, however, the relative density of the cholinergic plexuses is less than that of the adrenergic ones. The guinea pig prostate is the most richly supplied with the adrenergic nervous plexuses, and the rabbit prostate--with the cholinergic nervous plexuses.     

Comparative study of the cholinergic and adrenergic innervation of the cerebral vessels in humans and various laboratory animals

Choline- and adrenergic innervation of intracerebral branches of the middle and posterior cerebral arteries has been investigated histochemically and electron microscopically in slices, or after their preparation after W. Penfield. The vessels have been studied in the area of the fields 41, 17 of the cerebrum, trunk and spinal cord of the human being, cat and dog. When studying innervation of the intracerebral arteries (ICA), the preparation method has some advantages in comparison with investigation of these vessels in slices of the brain. Around most of the ICA from 200 up to 30 mcm in the diameter choline- and adrenergic nervous conductors are revealed. Using the method for calculating varicosities in nervous plexuses, it is demonstrated that degree of the ICA innervation is two times less than that in the arteries of similar caliber in the cerebral pia mater.     

Adrenergic innervation of the arteries of different diameters in the human and animal pia mater

The adrenergic nervous plexuses of the pial arteries from 450- to 50 micron in diameter have been studied in dogs, cats and humans from 4 age groups (22-44 years, 55-64 years, 65-74 years and 75-86 years old). It has been found that the decrease in the vessel diameter was accompanied by a marked decline in the absolute number of nervous fibers in the nervous plexuses, however the concentration of the nerve fibers has not revealed any significant differences between human arteries from 450 to 100 micron in diameter and animal arteries from 300 to 80 micron in diameter. The number of varicosities-thickness along the nerve fiber--was the greatest in 200-100 micron human arteries and in 80-60 micron animal arteries. With ageing, the number of varicosities in the adrenergic nervous plexus of human pial vessels decreased faster than in the nerve fibers.     

Intrinsic and extrinsic innervation of the amphibians esophagic myenteric plexuses

The innervation of Rana ridibunda esophagus myenteric plexuses has been studied by the following methods: demonstration of cholinesterase activity; FIF method for catecholamines; immunohistochemistry for VIP, SP and SOM, and conventional electron microscopy. The cholinergic innervation is important in the esophagus wall where, in addition to the well known extrinsic component, there is a rich intrinsic plexus with cells and fibres widely distributed. The esophagus, together with the intestine, are the Rana gut portions where the adrenergic component is more broadly expressed. The adrenergic innervation seems to be almost entirely of extrinsic origin. We have shown that, for the tested peptides, there is an intrinsic innervation represented by VIP, SP and SOM like plexuses. We do not discard nonetheless an extrinsic component. The ultrastructure reveals the morphological characteristics of the enteric neurons as well as the fine inter-relationships between the nervous elements and the functional components of the esophagic wall.     

Neural apparatus of the wall of the ductus deferens in the dog

While studying the innervation sources of the deferent duct in 10 dogs, 2-3 nerves have been revealed that take their origin at the pelvic neural plexus and approach the duct together with the blood vessels at the pelvic neural plexus and approach the duct together with the blood vessels at the place where it crosses the ureter ("the vascular-neural hilus"). In the experiment performed in 65 dogs the nature of these sources has been revealed. The motor innervation is presented by the nodes of the celiac plexus, of the lumbar and sacral parts of the sympathetic trunk, of the subceliac, gonadal and splanchic pelvic nerves, and the sensitive innervation is multisegmental and is performed by the intravertebral nodes L2-S3. Quantitative investigation of the degenerated neural fibers in the dog deferent duct wall demonstrates that the innervation sources mentioned above participate te a various degree along the course of the organ. In the "hilus" the nerves of the dog deferent duct are divided into the proximal nad distal groups. The proximal group runs towards the prostate and forms a plexus with large loops connected with the neural plexuses of the urinary bladder, the ureter and the prostate. It has small neural nodes. The distally directed nerves run, together with the blood vessels, in the deferent duct towards the epididymis. In the deferent duct wall, adventitila, muscular and mucous neural plexus are found, the cholinergic component prevailing the adrenergic one. The plexuses are somewhat better developed at the beginning of the deferent duct and they are especially pronounced in the ampule. The receptors of the organ's wall are simple, poorly branching.     

Morphofunctional changes in the adrenergic innervation of the major cerebral arteries during bilateral electrostimulation of the locus coeruleus

The intramural adrenergic nervous apparatus of cerebral arteries was studied in adult rabbits after 3-10 sessions of electrical stimulation of locus coeruleus. The activity of nerve structures was determined by estimating the density of adrenergic perivascular plexuses and by semi-quantitative cytophotometry of changes in the catecholamine content of nerve varicosities. The stimulation was followed by a 28.2 +/- 1.5% increase in adrenergic innervation density. while catecholamine content in perivascular nerve structures displayed a tendency to decrease. The problem of central effects on cerebral blood flow autoregulation is discussed.     

Sources of the innervation of the carotid reflexogenic zone in representative reptiles

The investigation is dedicated to study sources of the carotid reflexogenic zone innervation in 43 tortoises (Testudo horsfieldi and Emys orbicularis). In 7 tortoises fine preparation of the vessels and nerves of the cervical area after V. P. Vorob'ev has been performed. In 13 animals descending branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve has been resected. In 4--the caudal ganglion of this nerve and in 9 tortoises the caudal ganglion of the vagus nerve have been resected. In 10 tortoises adrenergic nervous plexuses are studied after Falck-Govyrin method, and cholinergic ones--after Karnovsky-Roots. As demonstrate anatomical investigations, to the carotid reflexogenic zone of the tortoises, situating in the area of the common carotid artery base, the branches of the glossopharyngeal and of the vagus nerve approach. The experiments with resection of these nervous conductors demonstrate that by the end of 3 days after the operation myelin nervous fibers of various thickness are at the stage of granular decay. Cholinergic and adrenergic nervous fibers and plexuses are revealed histochemically in the carotid zone.     

Age and changes in the nerve supply of the superior and inferior venae cavae in man

The superior and inferior venae cavae have been studied in 51 human being at various age, beginning from newborns using histochemical methods. After birth concentration of neural plexuses in the venae cavae increases up to the period of puberty, and then after 40years of age, certain rarefication of adrenergic and then cholinergic neural plexuses is noted. Choline- and adrenergic innervation is revealed in myocardial fibers penetrating the walls of the superior and inferior venae cavae.     

Adrenergic innervation of the myocardium and skeletal musculature of the rabbit exposed to vibration

Innervation of the myocardium and that of foreleg musculature has been studied in rabbits subjected to the local vibration effect. The point where the vibration is applied is the foreleg, because its nerve plexuses are in the tightest way connected with the cardiac nervous apparatus. For treatment of the sections incubation in 2% solution of glyoxylic acid is used, which is followed with luminescent microscopy. While studying adrenergic nerve plexuses of the right auricle, their luminescent activity is stated to decrease more than by a half. In the ventricles only single perivascular adrenergic nerve plexuses remain. A constant reaction of the plexuses mentioned is revealed not only in the right, but in the left extremity subjected to a direct vibration. Taking into account that the vibrational effect is performed as a generalized action and it embraces the whole skeleton of the animal, it is possible to suggest that the activity of the sympathetic nervous plexuses results in a constant influence of noradrenaline on the wall of blood vessels producing their steady spasmodicity.     

The autonomic innervation of Rana ridibunda intestine

1. The innervation of Rana ridibunda intestine has been studied by the following methods: (a) demonstration of cholinesterase activity; (b) FIF method for catecholamines; (c) immunohistochemistry for VIP, SP and SOM, and (d) conventional electron microscopy. 2. The intrinsic intestinal innervation is represented by cholinergic-, VIPergic-, SP- and SOM-like plexuses. The intestinal adrenergic component is of extrinsic origin. 3. The intestinal peptidergic innervation is the most developed, the large intestine being the portion where the studied peptidergic plexuses are more widely distributed. 4. Against a poorly developed cholinergic/adrenergic innervation, it seems that there is a predominant peptidergic innervation in the amphibians intestine wall. 5. Taking into account that amphibians sacral parasympathetic as well as sympathetic innervation development are limited, it could be considered that in vertebrates the intestinal peptidergic innervation is phylogenetically earlier and hence better developed.     

Neural connections of the heart and superior vena cava in the rabbit and man

Innervational connections of the heart and the superior vena cava wall have been studied in the rabbit and the man. Besides, series of their embryos, impregnated with silver salts after Cajal-Favorsky have been investigated. Methods of Bielschowsky-Gros, Gomori and Karnovsky-Roots have also been applied. Adrenergic nervous elements have been revealed by means of incubation the slices in 2% solution of glyoxylic acid. Abundant cholinergic and adrenergic nervous plexuses are revealed on the wall of the superior vena cava, they are tightly connected with corresponding plexuses of the heart. Developmental of these nervous connections is followed, when embryogenesis of the cardiac nervous plexuses and large major vessels is studied in serial sections of embryos and fetuses of the rabbit and the man.     

A histochemical study of the innervation of cerebral blood vessels in the snake

Summary Dual innervation of snake cerebral blood vessels by adrenergic and cholinergic fibres was demonstrated with the use of histochemical methods. Although the nerve plexuses are somewhat less dense, the essential features of innervation of the blood vessels are similar to those of mammals with the exception that the adrenergic plexuses are more prominent than the cholinergic plexuses. The major arteries of the cerebral carotid system have a rich nerve supply. However, the innervation is less rich in the basilar and poor in the spinal (vertebral) arteries. Although the arteries supplying the right side of head are poorly developed, three pairs of arteries, cerebral carotids, ophthalmics and spinals, supply the snake brain. The carotids and ophthalmics are densely innervated and are accompanied by thick nerve bundles, suggesting that the nerves preferentially enter the skull along those arteries. Some parenchymal arterioles are also dually innervated. Connection between the brain parenchyma and intracerebral capillaries via both cholinergic and adrenergic fibres was observed. In addition cholinergic nerve fibres, connecting capillaries and the intramedullary nerve fibre bundles, were noticed. Capillary blood flow may be influenced by both adrenergic and cholinergic central neurons. The walls of capillaries also exhibit heavy acetylcholinesterase activity. This may indicate an important role for the capillary in the regulation of intracerebral blood flow.     

Efferent neural apparatus of the thymus gland, spleen and lymph nodes and its reaction to electric stimulation of the posterior hypothalamic field

At a histochemical investigation of the rabbit lymphoid organs innervation certain peculiarities on histotopography of adrenergic and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-containing nervous elements have been established. At a chronic experiment by means of a dosed repeated bilateral electrostimulation of the posterior hypothalamic field in the organs mentioned, inhibition of the functional activity has been noticed. It is most specific not for the AChE-containing structures, but for the adrenergic ones, localized to some extent in the parenchyma, as well as along the course of the blood vessels and their adventitium. The results are discussed in terms of modulatory influence of the posterior hypothalamic field on trophic and functions of the lymphoid tissue. This influence is realized both humoraly and via the nervous pathways (either directly using certain ways and connections, or indirectly by means of neurogenic tonus of the intraorganic blood vessels regulation).     

Comparative characteristics of adrenergic innervation of the cerebrospinal arteries of vertebrates and man

Adrenergic innervation of the cerebrospinal arteries in redeye, frog, tortoise, hen, sea-gull, guinea-pig, rabbit, cat, dog and man has been studied by means of fluorescent-histochemical method. In all the animals there is a similar principle of innervation. The nervous apparatus is revealed as continuous integral plexuses. In the process of historical development the role of the nervous factor in regulation of the cerebrospinal circulation is increasing. As the innervational degree of the spinal arteries decreases, the vertebrates make the following line: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, fishes. In all the animals, besides the fishes, the greatest concentration of the nervous fibers is revealed in the areas of the spinal cord thickenings.     

Fluorescence histochemical study on regional differences in the sympathetic nerve supply of the choroid plexus from various laboratory animals

Summary The adrenergic nerve supply of the choroid plexus in all four ventricles was studied by the Falck-Hillarp histofluorescence technique in nine different species, and the noradrenaline concentration in whole plexus tissue was determined by a radioenzymatic method. The nerve density was usually in the order: third > lateral > fourth ventricular plexuses. Plexuses of the pig and cat possessed the largest number of nerves; the innervation was intermediary in the baboon, guinea-pig, rat, rabbit and hamster, whereas only few fluorescent nerves were found in the cow and mouse plexuses. Sympathetic denervation showed an ipsilateral supply from the superior cervical ganglia to the lateral plexuses and a mixed contribution to the midline plexuses. The total noradrenaline concentration varied between 0.10 and 0.73 ng per mg protein.     

Development of the neural apparatus of blood vessels in the common frog in ontogenesis

The neural apparatus of the aorta, abdominal vein, ischiatic, femoral, pulmonary and caudal vessels has been studied histochemically in tadpoles (the 30th-50th stages of development) and in 1-year-old animals. It has been stated for the first time that in the frog, a representative of the Amphibia class, like in mammals and birds, formation of the adrenergic apparatus in various vessels does not take place simultaneously. For instance, the first adrenergic fibers in the hind limb vessels appear much earlier than in other arteries and veins. The process of the adrenergic innervation development and its completion in vessels of various areas is taking its course differently. In the aorta and in the abdominal vein the formation of the adrenergic plexus develops as increasing density and amount of the mediator in the adrenergic fibers and is completed with maturation in an adult animal. In contrast to these vessels, maturation of the adrenergic apparatus in the hind limb arteries and veins takes place during a shorter interval and is completed at the end of metamorphosis AchE-containing fibers are revealed in tadpoles, as well as in a mature frog only in the aortal arc and in the pulmonary artery. In these vessels the development of cholinergic innervation leaves behind that of the adrenergic innervation, as it does in the vessels of Mammalia, and the human subject.     

Development of the blood-brain barrier to horseradish peroxidase in the chick embryo

Summary The development of the adrenergic sympathetic innervation of the rabbit choroid plexus system was studied prenatally and up to two months after birth by a combination of fluorescence histochemistry (formaldehyde and glyoxylic acid methods) and quantitative enzymatic determinations of noradrenaline. The first signs of adrenergic nerves are found in the plexus of the third ventricle within the first day after birth. Fluorescent fibres subsequently appear in the choroid plexuses of the lateral ventricles (five days post partum) and the fourth ventricle (two weeks post partum). During the following development nerve fibres grow along blood vessels to form a plexus located between small vessels and the overlying epithelium. The nerve plexus, with varicose axon terminals, is fully developed at three weeks post partum, and maturation is then established by an increase in the number of terminals within the network of axons. There is a good agreement between (a) the development of the fluorescent nerves and histochemically visible adrenergic innervation, and (b) the tissue level of noradrenaline in the various choroid plexuses. Against the background of available information on the development of the secretory functions in choroid plexus, it is concluded that possibilities for a sympathetic neurogenic influence on the formation of cerebrospinal fluid exist already a few weeks after birth.     

Adrenergic innervation of the gut musculature in vertebrates

Summary The adrenergic innervation of the gut musculature has been compared in various vertebrates (two teleost fish, an amphibian, a reptile and a mammal) by the fluorescent histochemical localization of certain monoamines. Very few, if any, adrenergic nerves occur within the longitudinal gut muscle of any of these animals, except for the taenia coli of the guinea-pig caecum. In contrast, the circular smooth muscle coat is supplied by varicose adrenergic nerves. These nerve fibres are particularly numerous in the toad large intestine, guinea-pig caecum, and throughout the eel gut, but are generally sparse or absent from the musculature of the stomach and small intestine of the trout, toad, lizard and guinea-pig. The extent of adrenergic innervation of the muscle has been discussed in relation to the physiology of the different muscle coats and to the general structure of the enteric plexuses in the vertebrate gut.     

Innervation of the mucosa of the small intestine of laboratory animals. I. Architecture, light microscopic structure and histochemical differentiation

1. The small intestine mucosa has a dense and differentiated innervation. The most dense nerve plexuses are contained in the villi. Each tubular gland is surrounded by a rope-ladder-like plexus, mostly developed in the lower and upper third. 2. According to our observations most of the axons in the mucosa are cholinergic. Cholinergic and adrenergic axons take part in the innervation of the glands. Moreover enterochromaffine cells can be innervated for instance sympathetically. Intraepithelial axons could not be found.     

The autonomic innervation of rat jugular vein

Summary The autonomic innervation of rat jugular vein was studied using glyoxylic acid fluorescence and acetylcholinesterase histochemical methods. The rat jugular vein is provided with both adrenergic and cholinergic nerve fibers organized in plexuses located at the adventitial-medial border. The existence of these nerve plexuses does not seem to support biochemical findings that suggest a lack of innervation in the rat jugular vein and which propose this blood vessel as a model for the analysis of drug-smooth muscle cell interaction without the interference of neuronal uptake mechanisms.