陕西镇巴早寒武世海绵骨针化石

作者对采自陕西省镇巴县下寒武统西蒿坪段和水井沱组下部碳酸盐岩地层的海绵骨针化石进行了研究。三叶虫及小壳化石的生物地层学资料表明西蒿坪段和水井沱组下段属于筇竹寺阶。化石经室内醋酸浸泡处理后获得,骨针化石保存较好、类型多样,其中属于六射海绵纲的骨针3类,普通海绵纲的骨针6类,分类未定的骨针1类(Nabaviellasp.);并详细地对各类骨针化石进行了描述。虽然普通海绵骨针类型多样,但六射海绵的骨针丰度远高于普通海绵。简要地探讨了海绵骨针的保存方式,对比和分析了西蒿坪段和水井沱组海绵骨针化石组成的差异。结合同时代产自皖南荷塘组和云南澄江动物群中特异保存的海绵软躯体化石资料,认为虽然海绵动物起源于新元古代末期,但躯体海绵化石和骨针化石都显示海绵动物的大辐射事件发生在早寒武世筇竹寺期。     

贵州寒武系九门冲组和渣拉沟组中的海绵骨针化石

贵州寒武系九门冲组和渣拉沟组中的海绵骨针化石经室内醋酸浸泡处理后获得,主要由有次级分枝的单轴针、具刺二轴四射针、三轴五射针、斜五射三轴针和三轴六射针组成,分属普通海绵和六射海绵类。其分异度明显低于陕西省镇坪县筇竹寺组、镇巴县灯影组西蒿坪段和水井沱组的海绵骨针组合,特别是镇巴地区灯影组西蒿坪段和水井沱组的普通海绵纲骨针化石类型如正多射骨针(orthopolyactines)、正顶多叉杆式骨针(orthopolyaenes)及顶三叉杆式骨针(triaenes)等类型在贵州深水区的九门冲组和渣拉沟组中均未发现。这些差异可能是由于当时贵州丹寨、三都地区的水体较深导致。     

吉林大阳岔寒武系-奥陶系界线剖面冶里组海绿石化海绵骨针化石

大阳岔寒武系-奥陶系界线剖面的界线附近地层（冶里组下部）中富含海绵骨针化石,其中部分骨针化石以次生海绿石化方式保存。海绵骨针的海绿石化与骨针的原始成分蛋白石有关,蛋白石不稳定,常脱水后在成岩过程中转变为石英;在寒武纪-奥陶纪过渡时期,此地的沉积速率较小,沉积了一套海绿石凝缩层,在局部弱碱性环境中,蛋白石质的海绵骨针易于溶解,且被海绿石所替代,蛋白石的溶解与海绿石的晶出替代近为同步,致使骨针形态完好保存。海绿石化海绵骨针共有4种类型：单轴骨针,四射二轴骨针（或十字骨针）,五射三轴骨针及六射三轴骨针;其中四射二轴骨针丰度相对较高。单轴骨针可能为普通海绵纲的骨针,其余骨针都为六射海绵纲的特征骨针。     

云南澄江下寒武统普通海绵化石—新属——Quadrolaminiella gen.nov.

前言早寒武世海绵在文献中虽屡有报道(Rigby, 1976, 1986),但多为分散式保存的骨针,关于海绵骨骼整体化石的报道则极鲜见(Walcott,1886, 1889; Rigby, 1987)。云南澄江是世界上迄今所发现的保存大量完整海绵骨骼化石和层位最低的唯一产地。澄江海绵化石群的研究为重建海绵类早期历史提供了新的较可靠的科学依据。长期以来人们根据早寒武世地层中所发现的大量海绵骨针均为四射类型的事实,推测这一时期的海绵分异度低,主要由六射海绵少数分子所组成,普通海绵极稀少,还未得到发展(Rigby,1976,1986)。澄江海绵化石群的研究所得出的结论与以上的推测恰恰相反,实际上,早寒武世筇竹寺期的海绵在演化上已达到了一个新的高度,普通海绵已高度分异并成为海绵类中最主要的优势生物类型。在分异度、物种结构、骨骼结构方式和复杂程度等方面均表现了筇竹寺期海绵动物群与中寒武世布尔吉斯海绵动物群具有惊人的相似性;这些相似性表明,海绵动物在早寒武世早期(筇竹寺期)已达到演化上的第一高峰,在其后筇竹寺期到布尔吉斯期将近3千万年的地质历程中处于缓慢的渐进式进化过程。     

云南澄江下寒武统普通海绵化石—新属——Quadrolaminiella gen.nov.

前言早寒武世海绵在文献中虽屡有报道(Rigby, 1976, 1986),但多为分散式保存的骨针,关于海绵骨骼整体化石的报道则极鲜见(Walcott,1886, 1889; Rigby, 1987)。云南澄江是世界上迄今所发现的保存大量完整海绵骨骼化石和层位最低的唯一产地。澄江海绵化石群的研究为重建海绵类早期历史提供了新的较可靠的科学依据。长期以来人们根据早寒武世地层中所发现的大量海绵骨针均为四射类型的事实,推测这一时期的海绵分异度低,主要由六射海绵少数分子所组成,普通海绵极稀少,还未得到发展(Rigby,1976,1986)。澄江海绵化石群的研究所得出的结论与以上的推测恰恰相反,实际上,早寒武世筇竹寺期的海绵在演化上已达到了一个新的高度,普通海绵已高度分异并成为海绵类中最主要的优势生物类型。在分异度、物种结构、骨骼结构方式和复杂程度等方面均表现了筇竹寺期海绵动物群与中寒武世布尔吉斯海绵动物群具有惊人的相似性;这些相似性表明,海绵动物在早寒武世早期(筇竹寺期)已达到演化上的第一高峰,在其后筇竹寺期到布尔吉斯期将近3千万年的地质历程中处于缓慢的渐进式进化过程。     

贵州寒武纪海绵动物化石组合特征

贵州寒武纪海绵化石丰富。分布广泛,主要产于早寒武世梅树村期的戈仲伍组或牛蹄塘组底部、筇竹寺期的牛蹄塘组和早、中寒武世凯里组。梅树村期的海绵属种单调,主要为六射海绵类麦粒海绵（Triticispongia sp．）及一些海绵骨针,代表寒武纪海绵首次爆发或辐射的前奏和先驱。牛蹄塘组海绵多达13个属,是寒武纪海绵辐射的重要窗口,以普通海绵略占优势,Leptomitus为优势属。凯里组的海绵共计7属,以普通海绵为主。贵州寒武纪海绵动物群的发展具有明显的阶段性和组成的差异性,其演变过程受到环境的制约。贵州早期海绵动物的发现和研究不仅改变了寒武纪生物多样性的认识,而且还为探讨海绵动物本身的起源、辐射提供了重要材料。     

贵州麻江羊跳寒武系九门冲组微体化石初探北大核心CSCD

贵州麻江羊跳剖面寒武系九门冲组发育一套富含有机质的灰岩,经室内醋酸浸泡处理后,发现有海绵动物骨针和腕足动物的微体骨骼化石。海绵动物骨针包括粗短三轴六射针和细长三轴六射针。腕足动物经对比研究后将其鉴定为Eohadrotreta zhenbaensis,外部特征和内部结构均与陕南和鄂西地区的E.zhenbaensis非常相似,具有贝体轮廓亚圆形或横卵形、壳体饰以明显的同心纹,腹壳内顶坑浅弱或不发育、顶突起微凸,背壳假铰合面明显、中间沟和中支板发育良好等特征。E.zhenbaensis主要见于中国扬子区陕南和鄂西的寒武纪第二世地层中,在黔东斜坡相区九门冲组中尚属首次报道。E.zhenbaensis在黔东寒武系九门冲组的发现,不仅丰富了该组的生物组成面貌,扩展其地理分布,而且可为扬子区和过渡区不同岩石地层单位之间的对比提供信息。麻江羊跳寒武系九门冲组微体化石远较鄂西和陕南等地水井沱组中微体化石的分异度低,可能与当时麻江地区水体较深有关,为研究不同相区生物群落结构的变化提供了资料。     

贵州麻江羊跳寒武系九门冲组微体化石初探

贵州麻江羊跳剖面寒武系九门冲组发育一套富含有机质的灰岩,经室内醋酸浸泡处理后,发现有海绵动物骨针和腕足动物的微体骨骼化石。海绵动物骨针包括粗短三轴六射针和细长三轴六射针。腕足动物经对比研究后将其鉴定为Eohadrotreta zhenbaensis,外部特征和内部结构均与陕南和鄂西地区的E.zhenbaensis非常相似,具有贝体轮廓亚圆形或横卵形、壳体饰以明显的同心纹,腹壳内顶坑浅弱或不发育、顶突起微凸,背壳假铰合面明显、中间沟和中支板发育良好等特征。E.zhenbaensis主要见于中国扬子区陕南和鄂西的寒武纪第二世地层中,在黔东斜坡相区九门冲组中尚属首次报道。E.zhenbaensis在黔东寒武系九门冲组的发现,不仅丰富了该组的生物组成面貌,扩展其地理分布,而且可为扬子区和过渡区不同岩石地层单位之间的对比提供信息。麻江羊跳寒武系九门冲组微体化石远较鄂西和陕南等地水井沱组中微体化石的分异度低,可能与当时麻江地区水体较深有关,为研究不同相区生物群落结构的变化提供了资料。     

贵州瓮安上震旦统陡山沱组骨针状假化石

通过薄片观察,贵州瓮安上震旦统陡山沱组底部的岩石中保存许多不透明的海绵骨针状物体。扫描电子显微镜和能谱分析表明,它们不是化石而是毒砂矿物晶体。因此,薄片中见到的矿化的海绵骨针状化石,尤其是前寒武纪的骨针状化石,需应用多种手段的测试才能够可靠地确认。     

华南寒武纪奥斯坦型化石研究进展

传统的奥斯坦型(Orsten-type)化石是指三维磷酸盐化的、以软躯体保存为主的、微型蜕皮动物化石。它们代表着早寒武世到早奥陶世浅海小型底栖生物群中的蜕皮动物,是其它类型的保存方式(如布尔吉斯页岩型)难以保存的。奥斯坦型化石在西方有近半个世纪的研究历史,但是在中国却起步较晚,直到2005年才首次报道。中国的奥斯坦型化石在四个剖面的相关层位有产出,即湘西王村剖面上寒武统排碧阶、滇北硝滩剖面下寒武统第三阶、陕南张家沟剖面和川北新立剖面的下寒武统幸运阶。报道的化石类群包括丰富的甲壳动物Phosphatocopida,最古老的真甲壳动物,最古老的环神经动物,动吻动物门第一个化石属种,等等。虽然研究历史短,中国的奥斯坦型化石在揭示甲壳动物、环神经动物及蜕皮动物的起源和早期演化方面展现了重要的价值。     

Evidence for spicule homology in calcareous and siliceous sponges: biminerallic spicules in Lenica sp. from the Early Cambrian of South China

Botting, J.P., Muir, L.A., Xiao, S., Li, X. & Lin, J.‐P. 2012: Evidence for spicule homology in calcareous and siliceous sponges: biminerallic spicules in Lenica sp. from the Early Cambrian of South China. Lethaia, Vol. 45, pp. 463–475. The relationships of the extant sponge classes, and the nature of the last common ancestor of all sponges, are currently unclear. Early sponges preserved in the fossil record differ greatly from extant taxa, and therefore information from the fossil record is critical for testing hypotheses of sponge phylogenetic relationships that are based on modern taxa. New specimens of the enigmatic sponge Lenica sp., from the Early Cambrian Hetang Biota of South China, exhibit an unusual spicule structure. Each spicule consists of a siliceous core with an axial canal, an organic outer layer and a middle layer interpreted to have been originally calcium carbonate. This finding confirms previous work suggesting the existence of biminerallic spicules in early sponges. Combined with data from other early sponges, the new findings imply that the two fundamental spicule structures of modern sponges were derived from a compound, biminerallic precursor. Spicules are therefore homologous structures in Calcarea and Silicea, and if sponges are paraphyletic with respect to Eumetazoa, then spicules may also have been a primitive feature of Metazoa. □Calcarea, Early Cambrian, Hetang Biota, phylogeny, Silicea, taphonomy.     

Spicule records of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ephydatia fluviatilis</Emphasis> as a proxy for hydrological and environmental changes in the shallow Lake Trasimeno (Umbria,Italy)

This research shows the results of an analysis of siliceous spicules found in sediment cores collected in Lake Trasimeno (Umbria, Italy), a shallow lake that experienced an important water level lowering during the last century. A morphological analysis of sedimentary sponge records revealed that the spicules accumulated in the lake sediments over the last 150 years are attributable to Ephydatia fluviatilis, the only sponge species found in the lake in recent years. The stratigraphic analysis of the cores showed that the abundance and size of the sponge spicules (megascleres) have remarkably decreased, suggesting that a significant depletion of the sponge fauna occurred, particularly during the first half of the twentieth century. A correlation analysis has identified morpho-hydrological and related variables (the theoretical fraction of lake surface subjected to resuspension and the amount of total suspended solids) as the most significant factors explaining the change in density of sponge spicules. Two ecological explanations of the sponge decline are proposed, based on the sensitivity of the sponge both to the availability of suitable hard substrata for colonization, and to the amount of wind-resuspended solids. One-ended sigmoid response curves were obtained by regression and corresponding transfer functions were derived, which allow the mean water depth of the lake and total suspended solids to be inferred from spicule density records. The results support the use of sponge spicules as a paleohydrological and paleoecological proxy, application of which appears particularly promising for shallow-water systems.     

Comments on a skeleton design paradigm for a demosponge

The ball-shaped marine sponge Cinachyrellalevantinensis is 3-5 cm in diameter. It filters large quantities of seawater for feeding. Sponges contain numerous, hydrated, brittle amorphous SiO? spicules of several types that form 70-80% by weight of the sponge. We performed mechanical tests to determine the functionality of the sponge skeleton. The potential effect of habitat on skeleton properties was investigated by comparing sponges from 0.5 m and 30 m depth. We determined how spicules contribute to maintaining the strength and macroscopic structural integrity of a sponge, and studied their deformation mechanisms under external loading, and their microscopic design parameters. Compression tests of cylindrical samples cut from sponges revealed their macroscopic deformation mechanisms. Experiments solely with the organic material (following spicules dissolution) revealed the contribution of the spicules to the load carrying capacity and structural integrity of the sponge. Cantilever bending tests of anchored spicules determined the strength of individual spicules, the sponge's main skeletal elements. As the strength of brittle spicules is statistical in nature, we used Weibull Statistics to define their strength and evaluate their Young's modulus. Shallow and deep-water sponges did not differ significantly neither in response to compression, nor in spicule strength under bending and tension. Spicule weight fraction within a sponge was significantly higher in shallow-water individuals. We conclude that the structural integrity and strength of this sponge's skeleton is derived from its low-strength, small spicules, produced by a cost-effective process. The operating deformation of the spicules (bending) and their design parameters make them highly efficient.     

Does the skeleton of a sponge provide a defense against predatory reef fish?

Sponge tissue often contains two structural components in high concentrations: spicules of silica, and refractory fibers of protein (spongin). Some terrestrial plants contain analogous structures, siliceous inclusions and refractory lignins, that have been demonstrated to deter herbivory. We performed feeding experiments with predatory reef fish to assess the deterrent properties of the structural components of three common Caribbean demosponges, Agelas clathrodes, Ectyoplasia ferox, and Xestospongia muta. The concentrations of spicules and spongin in the tissues varied widely between the three species, but when assayed at their natural volumetric concentrations, neither spicules (all three species assayed) nor the intact spiculated spongin skeleton (A. clathrodes and X. muta assayed) deterred feeding by reef fish in aquarium or field assays using prepared foods of a nutritional quality similar to, or higher than, that of sponge tissue. Spicules deterred feeding in aquarium assays when incorporated into prepared foods of a nutritional quality lower than that of sponge tissue (15–19 times less protein), but spiculated spongin skeleton was still palatable, even in prepared foods devoid of measurable protein, and even though spicules embedded in spongin were oriented in their natural conformation. Based on comparisons of the nutritional qualities of the tissues of the three sponge species and of the prepared foods, sponge tissue would have to be much lower in food value (5 times less protein or lower) for spicules to provide an effective defense, and spicules in combination with the spongin skeleton would be unlikely to provide an effective defense regardless of the nutritional quality of the tissue. Unlike terrestrial plants, marine sponges may use silica and refractory fibers solely for structural purposes.     

Light inside sponges

Sponges are the most basal metazoan organisms. As sessile filter feeders in marine or freshwater habitats, they often live in close association with phototrophic microorganisms. Active photosynthesis by the associated microorganisms has been believed to be restricted to the outer tissue portion of the sponge hosts. However, phototrophic microorganisms have also been detected in deeper tissue regions. In many cases they are found around spicules, siliceous skelettal elements of demosponges and hexactinellids. The finding of phototrophic organisms seemingly assembled around spicules led to the hypothesis of a siliceous light transmission system in sponges. The principle ability to conduct light was already shown for sponge derived, explanted spicules. However it was not shown until now, that in deed sponges have a light transmission system, and can harbour photosynthetically active microorganisms in deeper tissue regions.Here we show for the first time, that, as hypothesized 13 year ago, sponge spicules in living specimens transmit light into deeper tissue regions. Our results demonstrate that in opposite to the actual opinion, photosynthetically active microorganisms can also live in deeper tissue regions, and not only directly beneath the surface, when a light transmission system (spicules) is present.Our results show the possibility of massive or globular sponges being supplied with photosynthetic products or pathways throughout their whole body, implying not only a more important role of these endobioses. Our findings also elucidate the in-situ function of a recently more and more interesting biomaterial, which is unique not only for its mechanical, electrical and optical properties. Biosilica is of special interest for the possibility to produce it enzymatically under environmental conditions.     

Ultrastructure of siliceous spicules and microsclerocytes in the marine sponge Neofibularia irata N. SP.

The marine sponge Neofibularia irata contains four different categories of siliceous spicules. These spicules are evident in the tissues as distinct bundles that act to increase the structural rigidity of the sponge. All spicules have a normal structural morphology with silica deposition around a hexagonal axial canal containing a crystalline axial filament. The megasclere strongyles are secreted in typical megasclerocytes. The sigma and raphid microscleres are secreted in individual microsclerocytes that are grouped together in parallel to form loose bundles. However, the microxea microscleres are apparently secreted in distinct tight bundles (trichodragmas) within a single cell. These cells, containing between 13 and 39 spicules, are grouped to form large packets of bundles of spicules.     

Middle and Late Cambrian sponge spicules from Hunan, China

Abundant and well-preserved assemblages of disarticulated sponge spicules occur in Middle and Late Cambrian platform carbonates of western Hunan, China. Assemblages recovered from 11 stratigraphic horizons include calcisponges, demosponges, and hexactinellids. Hexactinellida, in particular, are both abundant and diverse in Upper Cambrian carbonates. Comparison with spicule assemblages from Australia indicates that many of these taxa have long stratigraphic ranges, limiting their use in correlation. The morphological diversity of these spicules exceeds that known for living siliceous sponges, supporting the observation that during the Cambrian radiation, sponges, like other metazoans, evolved a variety of architectural forms not observed in later periods. Like conodonts, individual sponges can produce more than one spicule form; thus, an "apparatus genus" concept based on multiple co-occurring elements may eventually prove useful in the biostratigraphic and paleobiological interpretation of disarticulated sponge spicules. Four distinctive forms are recognized as new taxa: Australispongia sinensis new genus and species, Flosculus gracilis new genus and species, Pinnatispongia bengtsoni new genus and species, and Nabaviella paibiensis new species.     

Dynamics of spicule production in the marine sponge <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hymeniacidon perlevis</Emphasis> during in vitro cell culture and seasonal development in the field

To characterize the formation of silica spicules, the dynamics of spiculogenesis of an intertidal marine sponge Hymeniacidon perlevis (Montagu 1818) (Porifera: Demospongiae) were investigated by measuring the gene expression of silicatein (the enzyme responsible for spicule silicification) and the dimensional changes of spicules during the developmental process of individual sponges and in cell cultures of primmorphs of archaeocyte-dominant cell populations. The different developmental stages of spicules were documented by time-lapse microscopy and observed by transmission electron microscopy during a 1-month culture period. During its annual life cycle, H. perlevis has four different developmental stages: dormancy, resuscitation, bloom, and decline. Field-grown individual sponge samples at different stages were collected over 7 months (March to September 2005). The dimensions of the silica spicules from these samples were microscopically measured and statistically analyzed. This analysis and the material properties of the spicules allowed them to be classified into four groups representing the different developmental stages of spiculogenesis. Silicatein expression in the bloom stage was more than 100 times higher than that in the other stages and was correlated with the spicule developmental stage. The trend of spicule formation in field-grown sponges was consistent with the trend in cell culture. A new parameter, the maturation degree (MD) of spicules (defined as the ratio of actual to theoretical silica deposition of mature spicules), was introduced to quantify spicule development. Silica spiculogenesis during H. perlevis development was delineated by comparing MD and silicatein expression.     

The Morphology and Chemical Composition of Siliceous Spicules of the Early Cambrian Sponge Lenica unica Gorjansky, 1977

Russian Journal of Marine Biology - The chemical composition of sponge spicules was studied based on the debatable fossil early Cambrian sponge Lenica unica Gorjansky, 1977 from the Siberian...     

Comparison of spiculogenesis in in vitro ADCP-primmorph and explants culture of marine sponge Hymeniacidon perleve with 3-TMOSPU supplementation

This study aims to test the feasibility of introducing functional chemical groups into biogenic silica spicules by examining the effect of supplementing a silican coupler [3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]urea (3-TMOSPU) as silica source in the cultures of archaeocytes-dominant-cell-population (ADCP) primmorphs and explants of the marine sponge Hymeniacidon perleve. Analysis by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) confirmed that the organic group in 3-TMOSPU was introduced into silica spicules. By comparing ADCP-primmorph cultures when supplemented with Na2SiO3, 3-TMOSPU supplementation showed no notable effect on the primmorphs development and cell locomotion behaviors. A decline in silicatein expression quantified by real-time RT-PCR was, however, observed during spiculogenesis. The decline was slower for the 3-TMOSPU group whereas significantly fewer spicules were formed. When sponge papillae explants were cultured, 3-TMOSPU supplementation had no negative effect on sponge growth but inhibited the growth biofouling of the diatom Nitzschia closterium. By monitoring the detectable Si concentration, it seemed that 3-TMOSPU was converted by the sponge and its conversion was related to spiculogenesis. Analysis of spicule dimensional changes indicated that the inhibition of spiculogenesis by 3-TMOSPU supplementation was less in ADCP-primmorphs culture due to lower 3-TMOSPU/detectable Si ratio in the media.