The effects of food level and conspecific density on biting and cannibalism in larval long-toed salamanders, Ambystoma macrodactylum

Previous studies have examined abiotic and biotic factors that facilitate agonistic behavior. For larval amphibians, food availability and conspecific density have been suggested as important factors influencing intraspecific aggression and cannibalism. In this study, we examined the separate and combined effects of food availability and density on the agonistic behavior and life history of larval long-toed salamanders, Ambystoma macrodactylum. We designed a 2Ƕ factorial experiment in which larvae were raised with either a high or low density of conspecifics and fed either a high or low level of food. For each treatment, we quantified the amount of group size variation, biting, and cannibalism occurring. Additionally, we examined survival to, time to and size at metamorphosis for all larvae. Results indicated that differences in both density and food level influenced all three life history traits measured. Moreover, differences in food level at which larvae were reared resulted in higher within-group size variation and heightened intraspecific biting while both density and food level contributed to increased cannibalism. We suggest that increased hunger levels and an uneven size structure promoted biting among larvae in the low food treatments. Moreover, these factors combined with a higher encounter rate with conspecifics in the high density treatments may have prompted larger individuals to seek an alternative food source in the form of smaller conspecifics.     

Laboratory evaluation of Toxorhynchites splendens (Diptera: Culicidae) for predation of Aedes albopictus mosquito larvae

Biology of the mosquito Toxorhynchites splendens (Wiedemann) was studied in the laboratory to provide baseline data for using the predatory larvae of this species against those of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) in a biological control programme. The mean incubation time of Tx.splendens eggs was 43.8 h and the time required for newly-hatched larvae to initiate predation was 2.5 h. Mean numbers of prey larvae consumed and killed by each Tx.splendens larva totalled 389 and 345 respectively. The larval period of Tx.splendens was not significantly different for rearing individually or in groups of nine, with equal prey density, and duration of larval development was proportional to prey density. In mass rearing, larval cannibalism was usually observed during days 1-3 post-eclosion. The incidence of cannibalism decreased sharply on the fourth day after hatching when some larvae became fourth-instar. Adult female Tx.splendens usually commenced oviposition on day 4 after emergence. The number of eggs laid daily increased on day 7 and the peak oviposition of 6.3 eggs/female/day occurred on day 11. When oviposition containers were provided only intermittently, gravid females of Tx.splendens scattered most of their eggs on the dry floor of the cage. Viability of eggs laid by females aged 4-14 days was high (60-90%) but decreased to less than 40% as the females aged.     

Baculovirus-Induced Climbing Behavior Favors Intraspecific Necrophagy and Efficient Disease Transmission in Spodoptera exigua

Shortly prior to death, many species of Lepidoptera infected with nucleopolyhedrovirus climb upwards on the host plant. This results in improved dissemination of viral occlusion bodies over plant foliage and an increased probability of transmission to healthy conspecific larvae. Following applications of Spodoptera exigua multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus for control of Spodoptera exigua on greenhouse-grown sweet pepper crops, necrophagy was observed by healthy S. exigua larvae that fed on virus-killed conspecifics. We examined whether this risky behavior was induced by olfactory or phagostimulant compounds associated with infected cadavers. Laboratory choice tests and olfactometer studies, involving infected and non-infected cadavers placed on spinach leaf discs, revealed no evidence for greater attraction of healthy larvae to virus-killed over non-infected cadavers. Physical contact or feeding on infected cadavers resulted in a very high incidence of transmission (82–93% lethal disease). Observations on the behavior of S. exigua larvae on pepper plants revealed that infected insects died on the uppermost 10% of foliage and closer to the plant stem than healthy conspecifics of the same stage, which we considered clear evidence of baculovirus-induced climbing behavior. Healthy larvae that subsequently foraged on the plant were more frequently observed closer to the infected than the non-infected cadaver. Healthy larvae also encountered and fed on infected cadavers significantly more frequently and more rapidly than larvae that fed on non-infected cadavers. Intraspecific necrophagy on infected cadavers invariably resulted in virus transmission and death of the necrophagous insect. We conclude that, in addition to improving the dissemination of virus particles over plant foliage, baculovirus-induced climbing behavior increases the incidence of intraspecific necrophagy in S. exigua, which is the most efficient mechanism of transmission of this lethal pathogen.     

Cannibalism and the stage-dependent transmission of a viral pathogen of the Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella

1. The transmission of an insect pathogen by cannibalism was studied by a series of choice and no-choice experiments.
2. Infection of Plodia interpunctella larvae with a granulosis virus occurred through cannibalism of infected larvae.
3. Depending on the larval instars of the cannibal and the victim relative to each other, preferential cannibalism of both infected and healthy larvae was observed.
4. Larvae cannibalise healthy, less vulnerable larvae preferentially, but it is argued that there is no evidence that they are avoiding infection.
5. The victim cannibalised can be explained as a balance between the reduced risk of injury and the ease of cannibalism of moribund infected individuals on the one hand and the greater food resource value of healthy individuals on the other.
6. The implications for the insect population dynamics of the transmission of the pathogen via cannibalism and the effective removal of infective particles through cannibalism by immune stages are discussed.     

Attack, escape and predation rates of larvae of two aphidophagous ladybirds during conspecific and heterospecific interactions

The attack, escape and predation rates for larvae of aphidophagous ladybird Propylea dissecta (Mulsant) and Coccinella transversalis Fabricius were quantified as a potential mechanism leading to the differences in the incidence of cannibalism and intraguild predation. These rates were compared at four larval instars within and between the species. The attack rates of larvae of C. transversalis were significantly higher than those of P. dissecta towards conspecific and heterospecific victims. For both species, third instars exhibited maximum tendency to attack. Escape rates in C. transversalis were higher than P. dissecta. In P. dissecta, the second instars made a greater number of escapes than other conspecific instars after being attacked by same stage cannibal or heterospecific predator. In P. dissecta, first instars suffered maximum mortality due to cannibalism and intraguild predation by conspecifics and heterospecifics of the same and older developmental stage. No larvae of C. transversalis were eaten by P. dissecta of the same stage. These results suggest that the larvae of P. dissecta were more often potential cannibals than intraguild predators, while the reverse was the case in C. transversalis. Based on this finding, it could be predicted that in patchy prey habitats, high rates of larval cannibalism in P. dissecta would occur with a high risk of cannibalism of first instars. Larvae of C. transversalis would respond as intraguild predators, while those of P. dissecta as intraguild prey. The greater size and walking activity of C. transversalis could be possible reason for this tendency.     

Larval cannibalism and worker-induced separation of larvae in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hypoponera</Emphasis> ants: a case of conflict over caste determination?

Reproductive altruism and cooperative brood care are key characteristics of eusocial insects and reasons for their ecological success. Yet, Hymenopteran societies are also the stage for a multitude of intracolonial conflicts. Recently, a conflict between adult and larval colony members over caste fate was described and evidence for overt conflict was uncovered in several bee species. In theory, diploid larvae of many Hymenopteran species should experience strong fitness benefits, if they would be able to change their developmental pathway towards the queen caste. However, larval self-determination potential is low in most advanced eusocial Hymenopterans, because workers often control larval food intake and queenworker caste dimorphisms are generally high. In the ant genus Hypoponera, larvae actively feed on food provided by workers and here we show extremely low queenworker size differences in these ants: the lowest in H. opacior, where fertile wingless (intermorphic) queens weigh on average only 13% more than workers. Thus, slightly better nutrition during development might change the fate of a Hypoponera larva from a completely sterile worker to a fertile queen. One possibility to obtain extra food for Hypoponera larvae with their well-developed mandibles would be to cannibalise adjacent larvae. Indeed, we observed frequently larval cannibalism in ant nests. Yet, adult workers apparently try to prohibit larval cannibalism by carefully separating larvae in the nest. Larvae, which were experimentally brought into close contact, were rapidly set apart. Workers further sorted larvae according to size and responded swiftly to decreasing food levels, by increasing inter-larval distance. Still, an experimental manipulation of the larval cannibalism rate in H. schauinslandi failed to provide conclusive evidence for the link between larval cannibalism and caste development. Hence, further experiments are needed to determine whether the widespread larval cannibalism in Hypoponera and the untypical brood distribution can be explained by an overt caste conflict. Received 18 December 2006; revised 2 August and 20 September 2007; accepted 21 September 2007.     

Effect of cannibalism and predation on the larval performance of two ladybird beetles

The relative impact of cannibalism and predation on the development and survival of fourth instar larvae was assessed in two species of aphidophagous ladybird beetles, Coccinella septempunctata and Harmonia axyridis. The effect of eating aphids, conspecific larvae or heterospecific larvae on larval performance differed in the two species: aphids were the best food for C. septempunctata and survival of C. septempunctata larvae was significantly lower when offered heterospecific larvae rather than conspecific larvae or aphids as food, indicating that H. axyridis larvae were not suitable food for C. septempunctata. However, as the different foods did not affect the larval performance of H. axyridis, this species appears to be more polyphagous. Both intraguild predation by the aggressive larvae of H. axyridis and the polyphagous food habit of this species may account for its dominance in ladybird assemblages and its displacing other ladybird beetles in several places in the world.     

A comparative study of larval cannibalism in three species of ladybird

Abstract. 1. Cannibalism was studied under laboratory conditions in three species of Coccinellidae (Coleoptera): Cycloneda sanguinea , Olla v-nigrum , and Harmonia axyridis . Larval cannibalism varied among species, C. sanguinea  > H. axyridis  ≥  O. v-nigrum .
2. Larvae of all species cannibalised more in response to reduced food availability (14 h starvation daily) than in response to reduced food quality (dry Ephestia eggs).
3. Larvae of H. axyridis cannibalised siblings at lower rates than non-siblings, but larvae of C. sanguinea and O. v-nigrum did not. Rates of cannibalism increased significantly with increasing size disparity among larvae of all three species.
4. Cannibalism in C. sanguinea and H. axyridis , but not in O. v-nigrum , increased with larval density, suggesting that not all attacks on conspecifics are driven by hunger.
5. Costs, not benefits, were the predominant effects of exclusively and partially cannibalistic diets. A diet of conspecific eggs yielded survival equivalent to the Ephestia egg diet for H. axyridis and O. v-nigrum , but developmental time was extended and adults were smaller. Larvae of C. sanguinea had superior survival and faster development on conspecific eggs than on the Ephestia egg diet. Only H. axyridis larvae survived as well on diets comprised exclusively or partially of conspecific larvae as on Ephestia eggs, although they developed more slowly.     

Effect of food availability on larval cannibalism by foundresses of the paper wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes chinensis antennalis</Emphasis>

Cannibalism is a behavioral trait seen in a number of species and can be favored when the fitness gain outweighs the cost. In social wasps, field studies have suggested that food limitation causes larval cannibalism as a compensation of a meal for adult wasp and/or earlier production of the first workers, but experimental studies for the effect of food availability on larval cannibalism have been very scarce. Hence we examined whether Polistes chinensis antennalis foundresses exhibit a higher level of larval cannibalization under food-limited conditions than under food-available conditions. Larval cannibalization occurred frequently under both prey- and honey-limited conditions; however, young larvae were more frequently cannibalized than old larvae in the prey-limited colonies, while old larvae were more frequently cannibalized than young larvae in the honey-limited colonies. The number of days between colony initiation and the emergence of the first workers was not significantly different between the prey-limited and prey-available colonies, suggesting that under prey-limited conditions P. chinensis antennalis foundresses tend to cannibalize their young larvae and feed probably the flesh of these cannibalized larvae to old larvae in order to ensure the rapid production of the first workers. On the other hand, the number of days between colony initiation and the emergence of the first workers was longer in the honey-limited colonies than in the honey-available colonies. We propose explanations for the first time for why the foundresses in the honey-limited conditions cannibalized their old larvae more frequently than their young larvae in spite of this resulting in the delayed emergence of the first workers.     

Extra molting,cannibalism and pupal diapause under unfavorable growth conditions in Atrophaneura alcinous (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Atrophaneura alcinous adopt multiple strategies such as extra molting, cannibalism and pupal diapause under unfavorable growth conditions. The conditions under which these strategies are adopted have been separately verified, but their relationship has often been overlooked. We examined which strategy A. alcinous adopted and the relative advantages of strategies using four experimental groups under different food quantity and individual density conditions. Our results indicated that A. alcinous often extra‐molted, prolonged the larval period, and larval and pupal weights were lighter under food shortage. Cannibalism and disease often occurred under the high density and food shortage condition. We also showed that individuals cannibalized during the prepupal or pupal period were less likely to extra molt before they were killed. Extra molting tended to occur more frequently in females than in males under a shortage of food. In addition, we showed that, when food was insufficient, A. alcinous might initiate pupal diapause under low densities, but not under high densities. These results suggest that A. alcinous prolongs the larval period by engaging in extra molting during times of unfavorable food conditions. This strategy might decrease the risk of cannibalization because surrounding larvae who could potentially cannibalize others pupate before larvae who prolong the larval period pupate. Our results also suggest that diapausing pupae under a shortage of food can only survive when there are few surrounding conspecifics, due to a lower cannibalization risk. In conclusion, there is a complex interaction between extra molting, cannibalism and pupal diapause strategies.     

The effect of food supply and larval cannibalism on adult size and biomass of the grazing caddis-fly Melampophylax mucoreus (Limnephilidae)

Abstract. 1. Larvae of the grazing caddis‐fly Melampophylax mucoreus were reared in a laboratory experiment investigating the effect of food availability on different substrates and cannibalism on the size and biomass of emergent adults. All experiments were performed in stream‐water filled, aerated aquaria under controlled temperature and light conditions. Larvae (fourth and fifth instar) were reared in aquaria (50 larvae in each) with three substrate scenarios: (i) limestone (LS), (ii) limestone and leaf litter (LS + L), and (iii) silicate stone (SS). 2. Cannibalism among the larvae in the LS scenario led to the highest adult dry masses (male = 5.13 ± 0.25 mg, female = 7.64 ± 0.63 mg) and to the highest mortality rate (88.7%). The SS scenario displayed the most unfavourable condition for larval growth indicated by the lowest adult dry masses (males = 3.12 ± 0.15 mg, females = 4.69 ± 0.25 mg) and a high mortality rate (81.7%). The limestone supplemented with leaf litter (ii) offered the most balanced nutrients to complete larval development and enough shelter to avoid excessive encounter rates of larvae within the aquaria, indicated by the lowest mortality rate (43.6%). Adults from the LS + L scenario showed biomasses (male = 3.94 ± 0.12 mg, female = 6.48 ± 0.24 mg) intermediate between the two other scenarios. 3. The results implied that cannibalism among larvae can lead to higher adult biomasses and therefore to increased fitness, if cannibalism supplements larval feeding requirements. Larvae developing under insufficient food availability can not compensate for this by cannibalism. Additionally, leaf litter not only provided a complementary food source for developing larvae, but also provided shelter, which reduced encounter rates. 4. Increased stress induced by high larval encounter rates (resulting in enhanced cannibalism) in the LS scenario and low food availability in the SS scenario could be indicated by premature emergence times compared with the LS + L scenario.     

Tipula iridescent virus infection in the developmental stages of Tipula oleracea

Tipula iridescent virus (TIV) is infective to all four larval instars, pupae, and adults of both sexes of Tipula oleracea, and iridescence has been observed in infected insects at all these stages. Third- and fourth-instar larvae were more resistant to ingested TIV than first and second instars. When TIV was injected into the hemocoel, the results suggested a possible decrease in resistance from the third larval instar to the pupa. Incubation periods (times from injection of TIV to appearance of iridescence) were significantly shorter in older fourth-instar larvae than in younger fourth-instar or thirdinstar larvae, but variability in incubation period was significantly greater in younger fourth-instar larvae than in the other two stages. Many insects which were inoculated with TIV in one stage developed iridescence and died in later stages. The amounts of infective TIV in two infected adults were estimated.     

Costs of cannibalism in the presence of an iridovirus pathogen of Spodoptera frugiperda

Abstract.  1. The costs of cannibalism were examined in larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the presence of conspecifics infected by a lethal invertebrate iridescent virus (IIV). The hypothesis of a positive correlation between insect density and the likelihood of disease transmission by cannibalism was examined in laboratory microcosms and a field experiment.
2. Transmission was negligible following peroral infection of early instars with purified virus suspensions or following coprophagy of virus-contaminated faeces excreted by infected insects. In contrast, 92% of the insects that predated infected conspecifics acquired the infection and died prior to adult emergence in the laboratory. Diseased larvae were more likely to be victims of cannibalism than healthy larvae.
3. The prevalence of cannibalism was density dependent in laboratory microcosms with a low density (10 healthy insects + one infected insect) or high density (30 healthy insects + one infected insect) of insects, and field experiments performed on maize plants infested with one or four healthy insects + one infected insect.
4. Cannibalism in the presence of virus-infected conspecifics was highly costly to S. frugiperda ; in all cases, insect survival was reduced by between ≈ 50% (laboratory) and ≈ 30% (field) in the presence of the pathogen. Contrary to expectations, the prevalence of disease was not sensitive to density because cannibalism resulted in self-thinning. As infected individuals are consumed and disappear from the population, the prevalence of disease will be determined by the timescale over which transmission can be achieved, and the rate at which individuals that have acquired an infection become themselves infectious to conspecific predators.     

Cannibalistic Behavior and Functional Response in Chrysomya albiceps (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Chrysomya albiceps is a facultative predator and cannibal species during the larval stage. Very little is known about cannibalism and prey size preference, especially in blowflies. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the influence of prey size and larval density on cannibalism by third-instar larvae of C. albiceps under laboratory conditions. Our results indicate that no cannibalism occurs by third-instar larvae on first- and second-instar larvae, but third-instar larvae do eat second-instar larvae. The functional response on second-instar larvae is consistent with Holling type II. The consequences of consuming second-, compared to first- or third-, instar larvae as well as the implications of cannibalism for the population dynamics of C. albiceps are discussed.     

Cannibalism and Virus Production in Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Larvae Fed with Two Leaf Substrates Inoculated with Baculovirus spodoptera

Cannibalism in the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (FAW), is a limiting factor in a baculovirus production system. To detect the impact of cannibalism, a two-step bioassay was conducted with different larval ages of FAW fed on two food sources (corn and castor bean leaves) contaminated with the S. frugiperda multiple-embedded nucleopolyhedrovirus. In a first bioassay, the food source affected the cannibalism, being higher for all larval ages tested (5-, 6- and 7-day-old larvae) in larvae fed on corn than on those fed on castor bean leaves. Larval mortality, weight equivalent and larval equivalents (LEs) per hectare decreased as the larval age increased. Larval weight, occlusion bodies (OBs)/larva and total OBs increased when the larval age increased. In a second bioassay, in which only 6- and 7-day-old larvae were used because of the performance in the first bioassay, the cannibalism rates were affected by the interaction between food sources and time of feeding (48 and 72 h), reaching the highest values for 6- and 7-day-old larvae fed on corn leaves for 72 h. Mortality of the FAW was affected by the interaction between food sources, larval age and time of feeding. The lowest mortalities were on 7-day-old larvae when they were fed on castor bean leaves for 48 and 72 h. Larval weight, OBs/larva, total OBs and LEs were affected by the interaction between food sources and larval age. A significant correlation was observed between larval weight and OBs/larva that fed on both food sources, suggesting that larval weight can be used to achieve a concentration to be sprayed in 1 ha.     

Horizontal migration of click beetle (Agriotes spp.) larvae depends on food availability

It is generally thought that soil animals face specific foraging conditions because movement through soil is highly energy consuming. The hypothesis tested here is that root‐feeding click beetle larvae (wireworms, Agriotes spp.; Coleoptera: Elateridae), to minimize energy loss, only migrate horizontally through soil when located in food‐depleted surroundings. Larvae were placed at either end of a root density gradient created by the grass Holcus lanatus L. (Poaceae), and their position in the gradient was recorded after 12 days of migration. Larval migration depended on the food situation at the starting point, with larvae moving from food‐depleted to food‐rich areas, but not leaving food‐rich areas. Larvae spread further around food‐rich areas when together with conspecifics than when being alone, presumably to avoid cannibalism. Food density‐dependent migration may have to be taken into account when using trap‐crops to control Agriotes larvae. Success may depend on the timing of trap‐crop establishment relative to the target crop to generate an effective food gradient.     

大小等级和大小组合差异对盆养安吉小鲵幼体同种相残率的影响

用改变安吉小鲵 (Hynobiusamjiensis)幼体大小等级、盆养密度和饵料投放量的实验方法 ,研究这些生态要素对同种相残 (撕咬和吞吃 )的影响 ;同时结合Fuetal (2 0 0 3)的研究 ,比较了大小组合的差异对同种相残的影响。结果表明 ,①大小等级、密度与饵料量均显著地影响幼体的被吞吃率 :较小个体易被较大个体攻击 ;低饵料×高密度水平下 ,3个等级大小幼体的同种相残率都最高。②大小组合的差异显著影响幼体间的同种相残率 :不同大小组合的幼体间被吞吃率均显著大于相同大小组合 ,而被撕咬率反之。这证实了体形大小决定种群同种相残率的理论预测。     

Comparative Behavioural Studies of Larval and Adult Stages of the Phytoseiids (Acari: Mesostigmata) Typhlodromus Athiasae and Neoseiulus Californicus

We compared the behaviours of the indigenous Typhlodromus athiasae Porath and Swirski and the exotic Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) (= Amblyseius chilenensis Dosse) relative to their persistence in apple orchards in Israel. We studied (1) larval feeding, walking, intraspecific interactions (cannibalism, touch-avoidance responses and/or touching with palps and tarsi) and tendency to aggregate (when resting), (2) predation and cannibalism on phytoseiid eggs by young females and (3) the effects of starvation for 10 days on young females relative to ambulation speed, longevity, fecundity, progeny survival and sex ratio. Larvae of T. athiasae were almost inert, did not feed and hardly walked or interacted whereas larvae of N. californicus fed, walked and interacted, mainly by touching with palps and tarsi. No cannibalism in the larval stage was observed for either species. The presence of prey increased the larval walking and intraspecific interactions of N. californicus but not of T. athiasae. Egg predation by adult females of both species was substantially higher than cannibalism, implying that both are capable of distinguishing their eggs from those of other species. Soaking eggs for 30 min in deionized water increased cannibalism in both species. During the 10 days of starvation, the ambulation speed of adult female N. californicus ranged from 1.8 to 10.1 times that of T. athiasae. The 50% lethal time value (LT₅₀) of T. athiasae (6.0 days) was significantly lower than that of N. californicus (10.4 days). None of the starved T. athiasae recuperated following the reintroduction of prey, whereas 75% of N. californicus did and oviposited after 2 days. These traits should enable N. californicus to persist when prey is scarce; however the selective predation of N. californicus eggs by T. athiasae could prevent establishment of N. californicus. The degree of specialization of these two predators is discussed.     

Development of sensory organs in larvae of African catfish Clarias gariepinus

African catfish Clarias gariepinus hatched with morphologically immature features; however, sensory organs developed rapidly with fish growth. Although the eyes of newly hatched larvae were immature without pigment, in 2 day‐old larvae, the retina of the eyes had already developed except for the rod cells. No free neuromasts were observed in newly hatched larvae. In 1 day‐old larvae, however, free neuromasts were observed on the head and trunk. Free neuromasts increased with larval growth. Newly hatched larvae had simple round‐shaped otic vesicles; however, all sensory epithelia of the inner ear were observed until the larvae were 3 days old. Two day‐old larvae swam horizontally, had sharp teeth, commenced ingesting rotifers and also artificial feed (small‐size pellets) under both light and dark conditions; by then the larvae already had many taste buds. Three day‐old larvae showed negative phototaxis and cannibalism by eating their conspecifics. Most of the free neuromasts observed in this study had the peculiar feature of many microvilli around the sensory cells on the apical surface. Detected free neuromasts as ordinary type lateral‐line organs were not observed in previous reports in teleosts. In 10 day‐old larvae, there were two lines of free neuromasts on the flank and lower edge of the trunk; presumptive canal neuromasts were oval shaped and had begun to sink under the skin. The direction of maximum sensitivity of the neuromasts was parallel with the longitudinal axis of their elliptical apical surface.     

Pathogens as a factor limiting the spread of cannibalism in tiger salamanders

Summary Intraspecific predation is taxonomically widespread, but few species routinely prey on conspecifics. This is surprising as conspecifics could be a valuable resource for animals limited by food. A potential cost of cannibalism that has been largely unexplored is that it may enhance the risk of acquiring debilitating pathogens or toxins from conspecifics. We examined how pathogens affect variation in the incidence of cannibalism in tiger salamander larvae (Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum), which occur as two environmentally-induced morphs, typicals and cannibals. Salamanders from one population were more likely than those in another to develop into cannibals, even when reared under identical conditions. Variation in the propensity to become a cannibal may be caused by variation in pathogen density. In the population with cannibals at low frequency, bacterial blooms in late summer correlated with massive die-offs of salamanders. The frequency of cannibals correlated significantly negatively with bacterial density in ten different natural lakes. In the laboratory, cannibals exposed to a diseased conspecific always preyed on the sick animal. As a result, cannibals wre more likely to acquire and die from disease than were typicals that were similarly exposed, or cannibals that were exposed to healthy conspecifics. Since conspecifics often share lethal pathogens, enhanced risk of disease may explain why cannibalism is generally infrequent. Pathogens may constrain not only the tendency to be behaviorally cannibalistic, but also the propensity to develop specialized cannibal morphologies.