槲皮素抑制中枢神经突触前兴奋性依赖的胞吞动力学（英文）

目的 槲皮素是一种广泛分布于药用植物中的黄酮类化合物，传统被认为具有神经保护作用。本研究利用位于大鼠脑干花萼状突触的突触前神经末梢进行膜片钳记录，研究槲皮素调控突触传递和可塑性的突触前机制。方法 利用全细胞膜片钳结合膜电容记录，在突触后记录微小兴奋性突触后电流（m EPSC），在突触前神经末梢记录钙內流和神经囊泡的释放、回收以及可立即释放库（RRP）的恢复动力学。并且利用纤维刺激在轴突给予5～200 Hz的刺激，诱发突触后EPSC，记录突触后短时程抑制（STD）。结果 100μmol/L槲皮素不影响突触后m EPSC的振幅、频率以及AMPA受体的动力学特征。在突触前神经末梢，槲皮素不改变钙内流或囊泡的释放，但显著抑制胞吐后网格蛋白依赖的慢速胞吞。抑制胞吞会导致突触前囊泡动员的减慢，降低RRP的补充速率，并且增强高频刺激下的短时程可塑性STD。结论 本研究为槲皮素调控中枢神经突触传递提供全新的突触前神经机制，槲皮素有助于抑制中枢神经过度兴奋，进而发挥神经保护作用。     

海马神经元突触囊泡释放特征及可释放囊泡含量定量分析(英文)

中枢神经系统突触前的神经末梢只有少量的突触囊泡存在,突触囊泡数目的多少和融合模式将影响突触传递的效率。对突触囊泡数目的多少和释放模式的研究依赖于有效的研究方法。在本研究中,与膜亲和力不同的荧光染料用于标记体外培养的海马神经元的功能性突触囊泡。通过场电位和高钾刺激,动态观察荧光强度的变化,结果显示在第一轮刺激中,与膜亲和力低的染料FM2-10脱色的比例(93.0%±5.9%)显著大于与膜亲和力高的染料FM1-43(57.9%±3.5%)。但是,第二和第三轮刺激中FM1-43脱色的比例分别为(24.0±2.3)%,(8.6±1.5)%,显著大于FM2-10的脱色比例[(1.4±3.8)%,(2.3±1.6)%]。这个结果提示快速内吞模式不仅存在于囊泡的第一次释放,同时还存在于囊泡回收后的再次释放。另一方面,高频刺激和高渗蔗糖溶液这两种方法同时用于检测体外混合培养13~14天的抑制性神经元的可释放囊泡池(readily releasable pool,RRP)的大小。结果显示,用高渗蔗糖溶液估计的RRP的大小[(200±23.0)pC]显著大于用高频刺激估计的RRP的大小[(51.1±10.5)pC]。分析其可能的...     

槲皮素通过抑制胞吞增强短时程抑制效应

目的 槲皮素是一种广泛分布于药用植物中的黄酮类化合物,传统被认为具有神经保护作用。在本研究中,我们利用位于大鼠脑干的花萼状突触的突触前神经末梢的进行膜片钳记录,研究槲皮素调控突触传递和可塑性的突触前机制。方法 利用全细胞膜片钳结合膜电容记录,在突触后记录微小兴奋性突触后电流（mEPSC）,在突触前神经末梢记录钙內流和神经囊泡的释放、回收以及可立即释放库（RRP）的恢复动力学。并且利用纤维刺激在轴突给予5~200 Hz的刺激,诱发突触后EPSC,记录突触后短时程抑制（STD）。结果 100 μmol/L槲皮素不影响突触后mEPSC的振幅、频率以及AMPA受体的动力学特征。在突触前神经末梢,槲皮素不改变钙内流或囊泡的释放,但显著抑制胞吐后的网格蛋白依赖的慢速胞吞。抑制胞吞会导致突触前囊泡动员的减慢,降低RRP的补充速率,并且增强高频刺激下的短时程可塑性STD。结论 本研究为槲皮素调控中枢神经突触传递提供全新的突触前神经机制,槲皮素有助于抑制中枢神经过度兴奋,进而发挥神经保护作用。     

小鼠大脑纹状体诱发多巴胺信号分析——Monte Carlo模拟

突触前释放的多巴胺以容积式释放（volume transmission）来传递多巴胺信号,而碳纤电极（carbon fiber electrode,CFE）所记录的胞外电化学信号是大量多巴胺分子氧化电流的平均统计结果。这些特征为使用Monte Carlo方法来直观而细致地描述多巴胺在胞外“自由行走”的行为提供了可能。作者尝试使用Monte Carlo建模的方法来研究动作电位（AP）刺激的频率对纹状体内多巴胺浓度（[DA]）变化的影响。结果显示,与实验记录多巴胺信号相比,在生理强度（低频≤20 Hz,或≤12个 APs高频 80 Hz）刺激模式下,基于单一囊泡库的突触模型可以较好地模拟实验结果。此外,作者还分析了大脑神经网络结构等对实验数据的影响。研究说明,Monte Carlo模拟为研究大脑内多巴胺信号的产生机制提供了一种有效的辅助研究方法。     

神经元突触前可塑性的结构及分子基础

突触可塑性是神经元间信息传递的重要生理调控机制,它包括突触前可塑性和突触后可塑性.突触前可塑性是指通过对神经递质释放过程的干预、修饰,调节突触强度的过程.突触强度的变化,是通过影响量子的大小,活动区的个数和囊泡释放概率来实现的.而突触前囊泡活动尤为重要：从转运、搭靠、融合至内吞进入下一轮循环,每一步都是由一群互相作用的蛋白质共同完成的.     

CRISPR/Cas9高效敲除突触结合蛋白Ⅰ的电生理学研究

研究一种蛋白质在神经元中的功能,最有效的方法之一是在该基因敲除动物的神经元中确认其表型.传统的用胚胎干细胞建立基因敲除动物模型的方法虽然稳定,但是复杂、耗时.近几年来,一种新型基因组编辑技术——CRISPR/Cas9,能够在不分裂的神经元中高效特异地敲除目的基因.本文研究了用CRISPR/Cas9系统敲除突触结合蛋白Ⅰ(synaptotagminⅠ,Syt1)基因后的小鼠海马培养神经元的电生理学特性.我们设计并构建了Syt1单导向RNA(Syt1 sgRNA)的慢病毒载体质粒,并用编码Cas9和Syt1 sgRNA的慢病毒感染培养的小鼠海马神经元,急性敲除神经元中Syt1基因(Syt1 sgRNA组),并用不靶向任何基因的Scramble sgRNA感染神经元作为阴性对照(Scramble组).通过全细胞膜片钳的方法检测单动作电位诱发的兴奋性突触后电流(single AP-eEPSC)、微小兴奋性突触后电流(mEPSCs)、高糖反应测量的即刻可释放囊泡池(RRP)以及10 Hz串刺激测量的囊泡释放概率(P_r).结果显示,Syt1 sgRNA组神经元丧失了Syt1的功能,并且与Syt1敲除(Syt1 KO)小鼠神经元的突触传递表型相似,而Scramble组神经元的各参数和野生型(WT)小鼠神经元相比没有显著性差异.本文为CRISPR/Cas9技术应用于神经元中基因的急性修饰提供了依据.     

胶质细胞的细胞间通讯

星型胶质细胞虽然没有动作电位,但是可以表达多种受体和离子通道,并且以细胞内钙波传递的方式来响应各类刺激。星型胶质细胞同样可以释放多种信号分子来介导细胞间的通讯。尤为特别的是,星型胶质细胞的钙波传播和突触功能的反馈调节都需要其释放ATP才得以完成。然而,星型胶质细胞释放ATP的途径和机理还有待研究。尽管人们已经在星型胶质细胞中发现了小囊泡和大致密核心囊泡的标记物,可是用以胞吐的囊泡究竟是什么还并不清楚。作者等近期的研究成果表明,FM染料——一种被成功应用于研究神经元和其他分泌型细胞囊泡循环的染料,可以特异地标记星型胶质细胞的溶酶体,并依不同程度的刺激表现出两种不同模式的钙离子依赖性胞吐：在较低强度刺激下（ATP,谷氨酸）发生部分胞吐,而在高强度刺激下（氰化钾）则发生完全胞吐。进一步研究表明,溶酶体中含有大量ATP,并且在部分胞吐时少量释放ATP,完全胞吐时大量释放ATP,同时释放溶酶体酶。选择性地裂解星型胶质细胞的溶酶体,发现ATP释放和钙波传播都消失了。总之,星型胶质细胞的溶酶体可以通过调节性胞吐对生理和病理条件下的细胞间信号传递产生重要意义。     

囊泡谷氨酸转运体在阿尔兹海默病发病机制中的作用

阿尔兹海默病（Alzheimer’s disease,AD）是一种多因素复杂性神经退行性疾病,β淀粉样蛋白（pamyloid,AB）级联假说和谷氨酸兴奋性毒性是其重要的发病机制。囊泡谷氨酸转运体（vesicularglutamate transporters,VGLUTs）可特异性地将神经元内的谷氨酸转移入突触囊泡,且一个独立功能单位的VGLUT对于完成一个囊泡的填充是必要和充分的,没有VGLUT的突触囊泡中就没有谷氨酸（glutamate,Glul,VGLUT在一定程度上决定了释放进突触间隙Glu的量,是谷氨酸能突触传递的关键因子。在AD中Aβ增多聚集,VGLUTs表达减低,且VGLUTs转运Glu和Glu的囊泡释放与淀粉样前体蛋白（amyloid precursor protein,APP）代谢和A13的释放在突触囊泡的循环中存在行为平行性和共定位。胞外AB的增加可增强囊泡的释放几率,而Glu引起的突触活性增加亦可增加胞外A[3的浓度。APP／Aβ与谷氨酸能系统之间相互影响导致AD的发生,VGLUTs可能在其中发挥重要作用,被认为是治疗AD的潜在的药物靶点和预警标志物。     

神经递质释放的分子机制

大脑中的神经细胞主要依赖神经突触进行细胞间信息传递。神经递质从突触前释放到突触间隙中,将电信号转换为化学信号。释放的递质与突触后的相应受体结合,引起受体通道的打开再将化学信号转换为突触后电信号。到目前为止,对SNARE复合体介导的钙离子触发的神经递质释放分子机制已经有了深入理解,囊泡融合的基本模型也得到了广泛认可,但仍有问题没有解决。该文对近年来与神经递质释放分子机制相关的研究作一综述,以期为递质释放过程中重要分子的深入解析提供理论依据。     

抗生素诱导革兰阴性菌外膜囊泡产生及发挥生理作用的机制

外膜囊泡是革兰阴性菌分泌的一种球形纳米颗粒,由外膜及其所含成分组成,是细菌在外界压力条件下分泌的具有生理活性的特殊结构。外界压力如抗生素、缺氧等可触发细菌释放外膜囊泡,甚至在正常生长周期中,一些革兰阴性菌也会释放囊泡。外膜囊泡与细菌的多种生理过程相关,如应激反应、毒素传递、致病、细胞间通讯、免疫调节、基因水平转移及维持微生物群稳态等。在使用抗生素治疗过程中,尤其是当人体微生物群处于低剂量抗生素环境时,细菌会大量分泌外膜囊泡。在肠道中,外膜囊泡释放后会通过多种机制刺激肠道而引发多种炎症。本文综述了外膜囊泡的产生、结构及生理作用,提出抗生素治疗不但会破坏人体正常菌群而导致菌群失调,还会诱导细菌产生大量外膜囊泡而引发慢性炎症。噬菌体治疗不破坏正常菌群,特异性杀灭细菌时也不引起外膜囊泡的产生,因此开发使用噬菌体靶向治疗细菌感染将大大减少不良反应。     

Synaptotagmin-7 controls the size of the reserve and resting pools of synaptic vesicles in hippocampal neurons

Continuous neurotransmitter release is subjected to synaptic vesicle availability, which in turn depends on vesicle recycling and the traffic of vesicles between pools. We studied the role of Synaptotagmin-7 (Syt-7) in synaptic vesicle accessibility for release in hippocampal neurons in culture. Synaptic boutons from Syt-7 knockout (KO) mice displayed normal basal secretion with no alteration in the RRP size or the probability of release. However, stronger stimuli revealed an increase in the size of the reserve and resting vesicle pools in Syt-7 KO boutons compared with WT. These data suggest that Syt-7 plays a significant role in the vesicle pool homeostasis and, consequently, in the availability of vesicles for synaptic transmission during strong stimulation, probably, by facilitating advancing synaptic vesicles to the readily releasable pool.     

Modulation of Synaptic Vesicle Exocytosis in Muscle-Dependent Long-Term Depression at the Amphibian Neuromuscular Junction

We have labeled recycling synaptic vesicles at the somatic Bufo marinus neuromuscular junction with the styryl dye FM2-10 and provide direct evidence for refractoriness of exocytosis associated with a muscle activity-dependent form of long-term depression (LTD) at this synapse. FM2-10 dye unloading experiments demonstrated that the rate of vesicle exocytosis from the release ready pool (RRP) of vesicles was more than halved in the LTD (induced by 20 min of low frequency stimulation). Recovery from LTD, observed as a partial recovery of nerve-evoked muscle twitch amplitude, was accompanied by partial recovery of the refractoriness of RRP exocytosis. Unexpectedly, paired pulse plasticity, another routinely used indicator of presynaptic forms of synaptic plasticity, was unchanged in the LTD. We conclude that the LTD induces refractoriness of the neuromuscular vesicle release machinery downstream of presynaptic calcium entry.     

Size of vesicle pools, rates of mobilization, and recycling at neuromuscular synapses of a Drosophila mutant, shibire

Two vesicle pools, readily releasable (RRP) and reserve (RP) pools, are present at Drosophila neuromuscular junctions. Using a temperature-sensitive mutant, shibire(ts), we studied pool sizes and vesicle mobilization rates. In shibire(ts), due to lack of endocytosis at nonpermissive temperatures, synaptic currents continuously declined during tetanic stimulation until they ceased as the result of vesicle depletion. By then, approximately 84,000 quanta were released. Vesicles were mobilized from RP at a rate 1/7-1/10 of RRP. Cytochalasin D inhibited mobilization of vesicles from RP, allowing us to estimate the size of RRP as 14%-19% of all vesicles. Vesicle recycling supports synaptic transmission during prolonged tetanic stimulation and the maximum recycling rate was 1000 vesicles/s.     

Monitoring synaptic vesicle recycling in frog motor nerve terminals with FM dyes

Ultrastructural observations made in the study of the frog neuromuscular junction (NMJ) almost three decades ago showed that synaptic vesicle cycling functions through a slow pathway, requiring the use of clathrin-coated vesicles and an endosomal compartment. Simultaneously, a conceptually simpler model emerged, postulating rapid retrieval of vesicle membrane through a mechanism similar to a reversal of vesicle fusion. With the advent of fluorescence imaging which allows the investigator to monitor recycling in living nerve-muscle preparations, new data appeared which reconcile at least in part the two models, indicating that both may be important at this synapse. Two different synaptic vesicle pools can be defined, a readily releasable pool (RRP), consisting of quanta that are immediately available for release, and a reserve pool (RP) that is exocytosed only after prolonged stimulation. Vesicles in the RRP recycle through a fast endocytic pathway, which does not rely on an endosomal compartment, while vesicles in the RP cycle more slowly through formation of infoldings and endosomes and their subsequent severance into vesicles. The two pools mix slowly, and their recycling may be regulated by different mechanisms.     

Temperature dependence of vesicular dynamics at excitatory synapses of rat hippocampus

How vesicular dynamics parameters depend on temperature and how temperature affects the parameter change during prolonged high frequency stimulation was determined by fitting a model of vesicular storage and release to the amplitudes of the excitatory post-synaptic currents (EPSC) recorded from CA1 neurons in rat hippocampal slices. The temperature ranged from low (13 °C) to higher and more physiological temperature (34 °C). Fitting the model of vesicular storage and release to the EPSC amplitudes during a single pair of brief high–low frequency stimulation trains yields the estimates of all parameters of the vesicular dynamics, and with good precision. Both fractional release and replenishment rate decrease as the temperature rises. Change of the underlying ‘basic’ parameters (release coupling, replenishment coupling and readily releasable pool size), which the model-fitting also yields is complex. The replenishment coupling between the readily releasable pool (RRP) and resting pool increases with temperature (which renders the replenishment rate higher), but this is more than counterbalanced by greater RRP size (which renders the replenishment rate lower). Finally, during long, high frequency patterned stimulation that leads to significant synaptic depression, the replenishment rate decreases markedly and rapidly at low temperatures (<22 °C), but at high temperatures (>28 °C) the replenishment rate rises with stimulation, making synapses better able to maintain synaptic efficacy.     

Synapsin I-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase mediates synaptic vesicle delivery to the readily releasable pool

Maintaining synaptic transmission requires replenishment of docked synaptic vesicles within the readily releasable pool (RRP) from synaptic vesicle clusters in the synapsin-bound reserve pool. We show that synapsin forms a complex with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) in intact nerve terminals and that synapsin-associated kinase activity increases on depolarization. Disruption of either PI 3-kinase activity or its interaction with synapsin inhibited replenishment of the RRP, but did not affect exocytosis from the RRP. Thus we conclude that a synapsin-associated PI 3-kinase activity plays a role in synaptic vesicle delivery to the RRP. This also suggests that PI 3-kinase contributes to the maintenance of synaptic transmission during periods of high activity, indicating a possible role in synaptic plasticity.     

5-HT offsets homeostasis of synaptic transmission during short-term facilitation.

In this study, we approach the topic of vesicle recruitment and recycling by perturbing neurotransmission at the crayfish neuromuscular junction with altered electrical activity and the presence of the neuromodulator serotonin (5-HT). After induction of short-term facilitation (STF) with stimulus pulse trains (40 Hz, 20 pulses), the amount of synaptic transmission can be maintained at a relatively constant level, producing a plateau in the amplitude of the excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) throughout the remaining stimuli within a train of a few hundred milliseconds. With an increase in the frequency of the stimuli within a train (60 Hz, 20 pulses), an altered plateau of larger EPSP amplitudes occurs. This suggests that differential rates of vesicle recruitment can be rapidly reached and maintained. Exposure of nerve terminals to 5-HT further enhances the EPSP amplitudes to yet a higher plateau level. The effect of 5-HT is more pronounced for 40-Hz pulse trains than for 60-Hz trains. This suggests that 5-HT can recruit vesicles into the readily releasable pool (RRP) and that the recruitment is limited at higher stimulation frequencies. The attainment of a larger amplitude in the plateaus of the EPSPs at 60 Hz compared with 40 Hz also suggests that the rapid induction of STF enhances the entry of vesicles into the RRP. By direct quantal counts, mean quantal content increases linearly during STF, and 5-HT offsets the linear release. We propose that 5-HT and electrically induced recruitment of vesicles from a reserve pool to the RRP may share similar recruitment mechanisms.     

Developmental acquisition of a rapid calcium-regulated vesicle supply allows sustained high rates of exocytosis in auditory hair cells

Auditory hair cells (HCs) have the remarkable property to indefinitely sustain high rates of synaptic vesicle release during ongoing sound stimulation. The mechanisms of vesicle supply that allow such indefatigable exocytosis at the ribbon active zone remain largely unknown. To address this issue, we characterized the kinetics of vesicle recruitment and release in developing chick auditory HCs. Experiments were done using the intact chick basilar papilla from E10 (embryonic day 10) to P2 (two days post-hatch) by monitoring changes in membrane capacitance and Ca(2+) currents during various voltage stimulations. Compared to immature pre-hearing HCs (E10-E12), mature post-hearing HCs (E18-P2) can steadily mobilize a larger readily releasable pool (RRP) of vesicles with faster kinetics and higher Ca(2+) efficiency. As assessed by varying the inter-pulse interval of a 100 ms paired-pulse depolarization protocol, the kinetics of RRP replenishment were found much faster in mature HCs. Unlike mature HCs, exocytosis in immature HCs showed large depression during repetitive stimulations. Remarkably, when the intracellular concentration of EGTA was raised from 0.5 to 2 mM, the paired-pulse depression level remained unchanged in immature HCs but was drastically increased in mature HCs, indicating that the Ca(2+) sensitivity of the vesicle replenishment process increases during maturation. Concomitantly, the immunoreactivity of the calcium sensor otoferlin and the number of ribbons at the HC plasma membrane largely increased, reaching a maximum level at E18-P2. Our results suggest that the efficient Ca(2+)-dependent vesicle release and supply in mature HCs essentially rely on the concomitant engagement of synaptic ribbons and otoferlin at the plasma membrane.     

Synaptic vesicle pools at the frog neuromuscular junction

We have characterized the morphological and functional properties of the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool of synaptic vesicles in frog motor nerve terminals using fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy, and electrophysiology. At rest, about 20% of vesicles reside in the RRP, which is depleted in about 10 s by high-frequency nerve stimulation (30 Hz); the RRP refills in about 1 min, and surprisingly, refilling occurs almost entirely by recycling, not mobilization from the reserve pool. The reserve pool is depleted during 30 Hz stimulation with a time constant of about 40 s, and it refills slowly (half-time about 8 min) as nascent vesicles bud from randomly distributed cisternae and surface membrane infoldings and enter vesicle clusters spaced at regular intervals along the terminal. Transmitter output during low-frequency stimulation (2-5 Hz) is maintained entirely by RRP recycling; few if any vesicles are mobilized from the reserve pool.     

Peculiarities of synaptic vesicle recycling in frog and mouse motor nerve terminals

Using electrophysiology and fluorescence microscopy with dye FM 1-43, a comparative study of peculiarities of neurotransmitter secretion, synaptic vesicle exo-endocytosis and recycling has been carried out in nerve terminals (NT) of the skin-sternal muscle of the frog Rana ridibunda and of the white mouse diaphragm muscle during a long-term high-frequency stimulation (20 imp/s). The obtained data have allowed identifying three synaptic vesicle pools and two recycling ways in the motor NT. In the frog NT, the long-term high-frequency stimulation induced consecutive expenditure of the pool ready to release, the mobilizational, and reserve vesicle pools. The exocytosis rate exceeded markedly the endocytosis rate; the slow synaptic vesicle recycling with replenishment of the reserve pool was predominant. In the mouse NT, only the vesicles of the ready to release and the mobilizational pools, which are replenished predominantly by fast recycling, were exocytosed. The exo- and endocytosis occurred practically in parallel, while vesicles of the reserve pool did not participate in the neurotransmitter secretion. It is suggested that evolution of the motor NT from the poikilothermal to homoiothermal animals went by the way of a decrease of the vesicle pool size, the more economic expenditure and the more effective reuse of synaptic vesicles owing to the high rates of endocytosis and recycling. These peculiarities can provide in NT of homoiothermal animals a long maintenance of neurotransmitter secretion at the steady and sufficiently high level to preserve reliability of synaptic transmission in the process of the high-frequency activity.