Artificial incubation of California condor Gymnogyps californianus eggs removed from the wild

The currrent California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) recovery plan entails increasing the reproductive rate via replacement-clutch manipulation of eggs. During the period from 1983 to 1985, 15 eggs were removed from wild nesting pairs for artificial incubation. The eggs were incubated at a dry bulb temperature of 36.4°C in modified forced-air Lyon Electric incubators. The incubation humidity was adjusted for individual eggs based on weight loss data (water = weight), 25.6–30.0°C wet bulb (41.0–63.0% Relative Humidity (RH)). The chicks were hatched initially under forced-air conditions of 36.1°C dry bulb, 31.1–01.7°C wet bulb (70.0–73.0% RH). In 1984, hatching parameters were changed to still-air conditions, 36.1°C dry bulb (top of the egg), 35.0°C dry bulb (bottom of the egg), 31.1–31.7°C wet bulb (70.0-73.0% RH). Tactile and auditory stimulation was utilized during the pip-to-hatch interval. From among 15 eggs collected, 13 hatched, and 12 condor chicks were raised successfully (hatchability: 86.7%; survivability: 92.3%).     

Breeding biology and seasonal abundance of Lappet-faced Vultures Torgos tracheliotus in western Saudi Arabia

Lappet-faced Vultures Torgos tracheliotus utilizing a 2200-km², fenced, protected area in western Saudi Arabia were studied over 4 years. Numbers fluctuated seasonally from minima of c. 30 individuals in the spring to maxima of 160 birds in the autumn. All birds foraged predominantly on domestic livestock carrion outside the Reserve. In each year, up to 17 pairs attempted to breed, with 81% of pairs laying eggs, typically in large Maerua crassifolia trees. In all, 81% of the eggs hatched and 85% of nestlings fledged. Most eggs were laid in December, when mean daily air temperatures were lowest, and young usually fledged c. 180 days later. Overall, 56% of nesting attempts fledged young. Juvenile mortality over the first 3 months after fledging was at least 17%. The numbers and proportion of breeders appeared to be stable, but it is not known whether the establishment of the Reserve concentrated the nesting and roosting of vultures in the area or has attracted birds from elsewhere. Breeding success was higher than in most well-studied African populations and probably those nesting elsewhere in Arabia. Four pairs reared 52% of the fledglings observed in the Reserve over 4 years. The Saudi Arabian Lappet-faced Vultures probably belong to the subspecies negevensis and, because of the extinction of this subspecies in the wild in Israel, the well-being of the Saudi Arabian population is critical to the subspecies' conservation.     

Captive breeding for reintroduction: influence of management practices and biological factors on survival of captive kaki (black stilt)

An important component of the restoration strategy for the critically endangered kaki or black stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae) is captive breeding for release. Since 1981 1,879 eggs were collected from wild and captive pairs, with birds laying up to four clutches. Eggs were incubated artificially and most chicks reared by hand until released as juveniles (about 60 days) or sub‐adults (9–10 months). Because survival in captivity is a significant determinant of the number of birds available for release, we wished to identify sources of variation in mortality to assess potential impacts of management on productivity. Hatchability was 78% for captive‐laid eggs and 91% for wild‐laid eggs. Survival of hatched eggs was 82% by 10 months of age for both wild and captive birds. Most egg mortality occurred early in incubation and around hatching: the timing of mortality was unaffected by whether birds were captive or wild, hybrid or pure kaki, or when eggs were laid. Heavier hatchlings showed higher initial survival, as did chicks from wild parents. Hatchlings from fourth‐laid eggs showed lowest survival, even though hatchling mass tended to increase with hatch order. Survival of chicks subjected to major health interventions was 69% after 4 months. No differences in survival were found between different genders, hybrids and pure kaki, hand‐reared or parent‐reared birds, chicks hatching early or late in the season, different seasons, different‐sized groups of chicks, chicks reared in different brooders, juveniles kept in different aviaries, and chicks from subsequent clutches. Birds subjected to minor health interventions were equally likely to survive as healthy chicks (82%). Survival was high despite aggressive management (quadruple clutching and collecting late in the season). Differences between captive and wild birds suggest further improvements could be made to captive diet. Wide variation in hatchability between parent pairs substantiates the practice of breaking up poorly performing pairs. Zoo Biol 0:1–16, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Development of restoration techniques for Hawaiian thrushes: Collection of wild eggs,artificial incubation,hand‐rearing,captive‐breeding,and re‐introduction to the wild

From 1995 to 1999, two species of endemic Hawaiian thrushes, `Oma`o (Myadestes obscurus) and Puaiohi (M. palmeri), were captive‐reared and re‐introduced into their historic range in Hawai`i by The Peregrine Fund, in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey–Biological Resources Division (BRD) and the Hawai`i State Department of Land and Natural Resources. This paper describes the management techniques that were developed (collection of wild eggs, artificial incubation, hand‐rearing, captive propagation, and release) with the non‐endangered surrogate species, the `Oma`o; techniques that are now being used for recovery of the endangered Puaiohi. In 1995 and 1996, 29 viable `Oma`o eggs were collected from the wild. Of 27 chicks hatched, 25 were hand‐reared and released into Pu`u Wa`awa`a Wildlife Reserve. Using the techniques developed for the `Oma`o, a captive propagation and release program was initiated in 1996 to aid the recovery of the endangered Puaiohi. Fifteen viable Puaiohi eggs were collected from the wild (1996–1997) to establish a captive breeding flock to produce birds for re‐introduction. These Puaiohi reproduced for the first time in captivity in 1998 (total Puaiohi chicks reared in captivity 1996–1998 = 41). In 1999, 14 captive‐bred Puaiohi were re‐introduced into the Alaka`i Swamp, Kaua`i. These captive‐bred birds reproduced and fledged seven chicks in the wild after release. This is the first endangered passerine recovery program using this broad spectrum of management techniques (collection of wild eggs, artificial incubation, hand‐rearing, captive‐breeding, and release) in which re‐introduced birds survived and bred in the wild. Long‐term population monitoring will be published separately [BRD, in preparation]. Zoo Biol 19:263–277, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The breeding biology of Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii in the far north of Benin

Adjakpa, J.B. 2000. The breeding biology of Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii in the far north of Benin. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 61–63.

Little is known about the biology of Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii, in Benin. I studied the nesting of this intra- African migrant in the wet season of 1996. Breeding pairs arrived at the end of March 1996. Seven nest sites were found, involving 92 pairs; the largest colony was of 51 pairs. The storks used five different large tree species for nesting. Egg-laying began in early April and lasted until 2 July. Most clutches were of 3–4 eggs. Incubation lasted 28–29 days. A total of 196 young storks fledged (all of which were ringed), representing a success rate of 76.5% per egg laid and 86.0% per egg hatched. The last storks left the colonies on 9 September 1996, 164 days after the first ones arrived on 30 March. The species is threatened in Benin by human persecution and by widespread pesticide use: it urgently requires official protected status.     

Captive reproduction of the Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei)

The Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei) was considered to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1990 in the Hellshire Hills region of Jamaica. Between 1994 and 1996, several wild caught juveniles were placed in six North American zoological institutions including the Indianapolis Zoo. The intent was to establish a self-sustaining captive population outside of Jamaica in order to serve as an ancillary population should the wild numbers decline. Several environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, photoperiod and diet were manipulated to encourage reproduction in captivity. In 2006, two clutches of eggs were deposited by two separate females for a total of 35 eggs. Twenty-six eggs were fertile and 22 hatched after a 76–83-day incubation at 30.3–30.8°C (86.5–86.7°F). The average weight of the neonates was 26.4 g and the average total length was 21.7 cm. This successful reproduction of C. collei constitutes the first North American hatching for this species. Environmental parameters, incubation techniques and neonate morphometry can serve as a baseline for further propagation of the species. This represents a positive milestone for the continuing conservation of this critically endangered species. Zoo Biol 28:343–349, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Captive breeding and reintroduction of the oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) in Khao Kheow Open Zoo,Thailand

This article discusses two related issues of the captive breeding and reintroduction of the Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) in order to increase its population in the natural habitats. Oriental pied hornbills were bred in Khao Kheow Open Zoo. Three pairs were separated and kept in breeding cages. Females occupied artificial nests between February and April 2005–2007. Eggs were laid and incubated between February and March each year from 2005 to 2007. Nestlings hatched in late March and left the nest in late April 2005–2007. Each breeding pair was fed with approximately 400 g of food each day. All three pairs reproduced resulting in mature offspring of seven in 2005, six in 2006, and five in 2007. Four of sixteen 3‐year‐old birds were randomly selected and equipped with a GPS receiver on their backs. Activities of the birds attached and unattached with GPS were not significantly different. The first two birds (one female, one male with GPS) were reintroduced on August 5, 2006, and another nine birds (four birds with GPS) were reintroduced on December 26, 2006. The average home range of these reintroduced birds was 0.13 km². Their foods consisted of wild plants and animals in the home range. The first reintroduced pair was able to breed naturally by laying and hatching eggs in an artificial nest. Two juveniles left the nest in April 2008. These results indicate that both captive breeding and reintroduction are potentially important ways to increase the population of the Oriental pied hornbill in natural habitats. Zoo Biol 31:683‐693, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Use of novel nest boxes by carmine bee‐eaters (Merops nubicus) in captivity

Carmine bee‐eaters make attractive additions to zoo aviaries but breeding programs have had challenges and limited success. The objectives of this study were to document nesting behavior of Carmine bee‐eaters in a captive setting and compare reproductive success between a novel nest box (plastic, 17 × 30 × 22 cm) and a PVC pipe model used previously (30 cm long, 8 cm in diameter). Three bee‐eater pairs were given access to seven nest chambers (six novel boxes, one PVC model). Behavioral observations occurred during a 15‐min period in the morning or afternoon before egg production and continued until chicks fledged for a total of 87 observation periods (21.75 hr). All occurrences by an individual bird entering or exiting a nest tunnel, food provision, and the time (min) spent inside a nest cavity were documented. Additionally, daily temperature within each nest chamber was recorded. Before eggs were produced the average daily temperature (23.02°C) within the nest chambers did not differ, suggesting that nest cavity choice was not influenced by temperature. No differences were detected among pairs in percent of observed time spent inside their nest cavities or number of times a nest tunnel was entered during the incubation or fledging periods. During incubation females spent a greater percent of observed time inside the nest cavity than males (P=0.02). During the fledging period food provision did not differ between the pairs, however males entered their nest tunnels more often per hour than females (P=0.03), and males tended to provide food more often than females (P=0.053). Two pairs nested in novel nest boxes and successfully fledged one chick each. The pair that nested in the PVC model did not fledge a chick. A nest box that aids in keeping eggs intact is essential for breeding bee‐eaters in captivity, and maintaining captive populations will provide opportunities for zoo visitors to enjoy these birds and will reduce the need to remove birds from the wild. Zoo Biol 0:1–13, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The influence of mist and rain on the reproductive success of the Blue Swallow Hirundo atrocaerulea (1995–96)

Evans, S.W. & Bouwman, H. 2000. The influence of mist and rain on the reproductive success of the Blue Swallow Hirundo atrocaerulea. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 83–86.

Due to the locality of the Blue Swallow Natural Heritage Site it appears that the birds have no alternative but to forage in the mist. The birds cease foraging as soon as it starts raining. Eight eggs failed to hatch after a week in which rainfall occurred for 60% and mist for 85% of the time. Later in the season a further six eggs failed to hatch after a week in which rainfall occurred for 18% and mist occurred for 65% of the time. The only mortality of two nestling Blue Swallows occurred at the end of a week in which rainfall occurred for 65% and mist was recorded for 85% of the time. At a nest containing three eggs, during the presence of mist (16°C wet/19°C dry) the female Blue Swallow spent a mean of 52 min h^?1 foraging and therefore only a mean of 8 min h^?1 incubating. In the absence of mist (21°C wet/26°C dry) the female Blue Swallow spent a mean of 25 min h^?1 foraging and therefore 35 min h^?1 incubating. Rainfall did not occur during the monitoring of this nest. It appears that the mist greatly reduces the foraging efficiency of the birds and that rainfall duration impacts on the birds by limiting the available foraging time.     

4. CLIMPSES OF THE NARINA TROGON

Bertram, B. C. R. &; Burger, A. E. 1981. Aspects of incubation in Ostriches. Ostrich 52:36-43.

We studied incubation in domesticated Ostriches Struthio camelus in South Africa and wild Ostriches in Kenya. Although the eggs were large, with relatively high thermal capacities, unattended eggs exposed to the sun reached dangerously high temperatures (40,5°C). Experimental exposure of fresh eggs to the sun for seven days prior to incubation greatly reduced the percentage of embryos which developed, and no embryos survived 15 days of exposure. In the wild. Ostriches frequently shade their eggs in the pre-incubation period to prevent overheating.

During natural incubation, temperatures in the eggs (range 30,8-33,8°C) and of nest-air (31,9-34,6°C) were remarkably constant, despite the daily ambient fluctuations of air temperatures (17,8-38,9°C). Similarly the humidity of the nest-air (39–52%) was lower and less variable than the ambient air (39–72%). Water loss during 42 days of incubation was 11–12% of initial egg weight and, in addition, early laid eggs lost 3–4% during the 2½-3 week pre-incubation period. The water vapour conductivity and the daily water loss of Ostrich eggs were similar to those of other birds, in proportion to epg size, despite the arid environment inhabited by Ostriches. Some of the constraints on the feeding and breeding behaviour of Ostriches imposed by the physical requirements of their eggs are discussed.     

Rearing ofChaetorellia australis (Dipt., Tephritidae) on an artificial diet

Larvae of the tephritid flyChaetorellia australis Hering, which infests flowerheads of the yellow starthistleCentaurea solstitialis L. (Asteraceae), and which is a candidate species for biological control, of that weed, were reared for the first time and for two consecutive generations on an artificial diet. At a density of 0.5 eggs per g diet a yield of 18.5% F₁ adults (over hatched eggs), was obtained. When the density of eggs per g diet increased, the yield decreased. At 25°C the duration of development from egg to adult was 20–25 days for both generations. F₁ adults reared on artificial diet had an average longevity of 32.0 days for males and 34.9 days for females. The fecundity was 53.3 eggs per female and the egg hatchability 88.8%. These and other biological parameters are similar to those of wild flies.      

Why do grebes cover their nests? Laboratory and field tests of two alternative hypotheses

Egg predation is a common feature influencing the reproductive success of open nesting birds. Evolutionary pressure therefore favours building cryptic, inconspicuous nests. However, these antipredatory pressures may be in conflict with thermoregulatory constraints, which select for dry nest material maintaining optimum temperature inside a nest cup during the absence of incubating parents. Here we examined possible trade-offs between nest crypsis and thermoregulation in Little Grebes (Tachybaptus ruficollis), which lay their eggs in floating nests built from wet plant material. As this species regularly covers its eggs with nest material, we experimentally examined (1) the rates of egg predation on covered and uncovered artificial nests and (2) possible thermoregulatory costs from nest covering by comparing temperature and relative humidity changes inside the nest cup. Results revealed that covering clutches is beneficial in terms of deterring predators, because uncovered eggs were more vulnerable to predation. Moreover, covering clutches also had thermoregulatory benefits because the mean temperature and relative humidity inside nest cups covered by dry or wet materials were significantly higher for covered compared to uncovered treatments. Covering clutches in Little Grebes therefore does not pose thermoregulatory costs.     

Effects of early rearing experience on adult behavior and nesting in captive Hawaiian crows (Corvus hawaiiensis)

Behavioral data were collected during the breeding season on eight pairs of Hawaiian crows (Corvus hawaiiensis) housed at two facilities on different islands. All data were collected from videocamera time‐lapse recordings of the nesting platforms. Behaviors included frequency of nest cup manipulation, percent of time spent on nest, allopreening, play, and stereotypy. The number of breeding pairs increased from four in 1996 to six in 1997, to seven in 1998, and to eight in 1999. Five of the older birds (three males and two females) were solitary‐reared for most if not all of their first year, while the remaining 12 birds were all socially reared. Significant differences were found between isolate‐ and socially‐reared birds, with isolate‐reared birds having higher rates of solo play (P = 0.0041) and stereotypies (P = 0.0090). Pairs that were comprised of at least one isolate‐reared bird engaged in significantly less allopreening (P = <0.0001) than pairs in which both birds were socially reared. From 1996 to 1999, 87 eggs were laid, with a mean of 1.88 ± 0.24 SEM eggs per clutch. Only three females produced clutches every year, and they were responsible for 85.1% of the eggs laid. Although not significant, the mean number of clutches produced per pair decreased from 2.50 ± 0.65 in 1996 to 0.87 ± 0.99 in 1999. Age of females does not appear to be a critical factor in the decrease in clutch production. New pairing combinations are under way in an effort to improve propagation in this highly endangered species. Zoo Biol 21:59–75, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Book Reviews

Adams, N.J., Kerley, G.I.H. & Watson, J.J. 1999. Disturbance of incubating African Black Oystercatchers: is heating of exposed eggs a problem? Ostrich 70(3&4): 225–228.

We measured temperatures of incubated and exposed eggs of African Black Oystercatchers Haematopus moquini nesting in coastal dunes, Algoa Bay, South Africa through three of the 10 hottest days of summer during the 1994/95 breeding season. Mean incubation temperature was 34.4 ± 0.7°C (range: 32.2–37.0; n=3). The average maximum temperature attained by exposed dummy eggs, averaged higher at 37.4 ± 2.7°C (n=5). The absolute maximum recorded for exposed eggs was 40.1°C. These temperatures are within lethal limits measured for other birds and suggests that heating of exposed eggs after disturbance of incubating was not a direct factor in explaining variation in breeding success of oystercatchers in the Alexandria Dunefield, Algoa Bay.     

洋县野生朱Huan的繁殖

朱鹮(Nipponia nippon)的繁殖状况 ,尤其是种群数量的变化 ,一直受到国内外的关注。本文收集分析了 1 981～ 1 997年 1 7年朱繁殖资料 ,进一步研究了朱的繁殖及其数量 ,以期为朱保护 ,采取行之有效的措施 ,提供科学依据。1　研究方法自 1 981年朱被重新发现后 ,至 1 997年 ,每年3～ 6月繁殖期 ,固定人员 ,2～ 3人为 1组 ,在每个巢区设立观察点 ,进行跟踪观察 ,并详细统计每窝产卵数、孵化数、雏鸟成活数和死亡数。并结合平常的跟踪监护 ,调查分析种群数量动态 ,统计成鸟死亡数 ,然后进行整理分析。2　结果与讨论2 .1　种群数量1 98…     

Seasonal variation in reproductive measures of tropical Roseate Terns Sterna dougallih previously undescribed breeding patterns in a seabird

Seasonal variation in egg-laying, egg size, hatching success, hatchling mass, fledging success and chick growth of Roseate Terms Sterna dougallii breeding on Aride Island (Seychelles), Indian Ocean, were studied in 1997 and 1998. I investigated to what extent two patterns, common in a range of species, were followed by tropical Roseate Terns: (a) seasonal decrease in clutch size, egg size and breeding success and (b) an increase in breeding success with increasing egg weight. In 1997 (a poor year), the earliest nesting birds laid significantly smaller eggs, and chicks were lighter at hatching than those of peak nesting birds. The mean clutch size, of 1.04 eggs, showed no seasonal variation and no 'b'-eggs hatched. In 1998 (a good year) the earliest nesting birds laid eggs of similar size and their chicks were of similar weight to those of peak nesting birds. Mean clutch size, of 1.25 eggs, increased significantly through the season and about 60% of the 'b'-eggs hatched. In 1997, hatching success was 57% whereas in 1998 it was 80%. In both years, breeding success declined significantly through the season. The fact that the earliest breeding birds laid smaller eggs in a poor year and smaller clutches in a good year is in marked contrast to a range of other species, and to temperate-nesting Roseate Terns. Egg volume explained about half of the variance in hatchling mass in both years, but only 15% of the variation in linear growth rate. Hatching date was the only variable with a significant effect on fledging success. Roseate Terns on Aride seemed to sacrifice egg size and clutch size for earliness of laying. Presumably it is a strategy of older birds to lay as early as possible and may be regarded as a response of tropical Roseate Terns to breeding under relatively poor, and seasonally declining, food conditions.     

北戴河朱鹮野化训练种群的繁殖和婚外配北大核心CSCD

为了扩大朱鹮(Nipponia nippon)种群的数量和分布区,于2018年7月从洋县引进20只朱鹮在北戴河建立了朱鹮野化种群。2020年繁殖期,北戴河共有22只朱鹮,其中成年朱鹮17只,雌雄性比为1.1;实际繁殖密度为37.8只/hm2;人工巢的密度为40.0巢/hm2,人工巢筐内径为50 cm。2020年繁殖期,北戴河朱鹮共配对8对,其中6对繁殖成功,营巢成功率为75%;共产卵33枚,平均窝卵数为(4.1±1.8)枚;出壳18只,孵化率54.5%;出飞13只,出飞率72.2%,繁殖成功率为39.4%,繁殖生产力为2.2±1.2。与洋县饲养种群相比,北戴河种群首枚卵的产卵时间晚17 d,与两地温差相吻合。北戴河朱鹮的窝卵数显著高于洋县种群,这可能是由种内巢寄生所致。监控录像表明,北戴河1巢朱鹮的窝卵数高达6枚,超过野生种群平均窝卵数(2或3枚)的2倍,推测发生了种内巢寄生行为。此外,还观察到8号巢朱鹮同时发生了婚外配和种内巢寄生行为,婚外配雌鸟将卵产在该雄鸟的巢中,使得窝卵数高达7枚。此后在该巢中发现3只朱鹮轮流孵卵,以及2只雌性朱鹮并排孵于同一巢中的异常情况。北戴河朱鹮的种内巢寄生行为可能是因网笼内人工巢址密度较高但隐蔽性较低所致,而婚外配行为可能与种群密度和繁殖密度过高有关。本文有关朱鹮异常繁殖行为的研究结果可为野化网笼内人工巢筐的设置和野化种源的选择提供参考,并提示我们进一步关注朱鹮在环境压力下的表型可塑性和生态适应能力。     

Isolation of mixis-related genes from the rotifer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brachionus plicatilis</Emphasis> using subtractive hybridization

The monogonont rotifer Brachionus plicatilis produces resting eggs through sexual reproduction (mixis), which is affected by external and internal factors. We collected resting eggs from rotifers cultured at 15 and 25°C and hatched them with and without 14-day dormancy in the dark. Stem females hatched from both conditions were further cultured at 15, 20 and 25°C. We obtained two phenotypes, one with high mixis (more than 50%), which was hatched from resting eggs formed at 15°C without dormancy, and another in which sexual reproduction occurred at 25°C and resting eggs were formed at 15°C with a 14-day dormancy. In the latter phenotype, mictic females appeared at 15°C, but not at 25°C. Using subtractive hybridization, we isolated one gene from the latter phenotype of females that had no significant similarity to known genes in BLAST searches. We propose that this gene is unique to rotifer mictic reproduction. Ongoing characterization of this gene attempts understand its role in mixis.     

Breeding biology of Frances's Sparrowhawk Accipiter francesii in a lowland rainforest of northeastern Madagascar

Lily-Arison, R.de R. 2000. Breeding biology of Frances's Sparrowhawk Accipiter francesii in a lowland rainforest of northeastem Madagascar. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 332–335.

Frances's Sparrowhawks Accipiter fmncesii were studied during the breeding seasons 1994 and 1995 on Masoala Peninsula of northeastern Madagascar. Breeding coincides with the dry season, nest building in October, egg laying in November, hatching in December and fledging in January (beginning of the wet season). All but one of 10 pairs built new nests in 1995 and the mean distance of nest site from 1994 and 1995 nests was 105± 100 m (n = 6, ranging from 0 to 250m). Nests in primary forest were incubated for 79% of the observation time by females, 3% by males and eggs were unattended for 18% of the observation time. On a numerical basis the diet was composed of lizards (56%) and birds (23%), making up more than 79% of the identified prey items. A total of 33 eggs was laid in 13 nests (average clutch size 2.5). In 13 breeding attempts 29 (88%) hatched and all of those hatchlings fledged. Of the 14 My-documented breeding attempts 2.1 young fledged per breeding attempt and overall nesting success was 93%.

L'Épervier de France Accipiter francesii a été étudié pendant la saison de reproduction en 1994 et 1995 dans la Presqu'Ile Masoala, au partie Nord-Est de Madagascar. La saison de reproduction de cette espkce coincide avec la saison sèche: la construction du nid en Octobre, la ponte en Novembre, I'élosion en Déembre et l'envol du poussin en Janvier (début de la saison pluviale). Tous, sauf une des 10 paires ont construit des nouveaw nids en 1995 et la distance moyenne de I'endroit du nid de I'anné 1994 et 1995 est de 105 + 100 m (n = 6, variant de 0 à 250m). Dans la for[ebar]t primaire, les oeufs ont éeté incubés par la femelle pendant 79% du temps d'observation, 3% par le mile et non incubés pendant 18% du temps. Les proies sont principalement composées de lkzards (56%) et oiseaux (23%), atteignant plus de 79% des proies identifiés. 33 oeufs ont été pondus dans 13 nids (en moyenne 2.5 oeufs par nid). Pour ces 13 nids, 29 oeufs (88%) ont été éclos et tous ces poussins (100%) sont capables de voler. Sur 14 nids observés, 2.1 poussins par nid s'envolent et le tam de succés est de 93%.     

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE BEARDED VULTURE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA,PART I: THE PRELAYING AND INCUBATION PERIODS

Brown, C. J. 1990. Breeding biolo of the Bearded Vulture in southern Africa, Part I: The pre-laying and incubation periods. Ostrich 61: 24–32.

In southern Africa the Bearded Vulture Gpaetus barbatus lays its eggs in mid-winter. between the second half of May and the first week of July. Pairs became more active in their nesting areas about six weeks before laying and usually roosted there at night. Courtship flights were less frequent and demonstrative than in Eurasian birds and took place mainly in the late afternoons. During the pre-laying period most nest visits (77%) were to bring nesting material, 92% by the male. All nesting material was arranged by the female. Copulation was always preceded by allopreening, and occurred most frequently in the mornings. No copulation or courtship display took place after the first egg had been laid. Of 18 clutches, 16 (89%) contained two eggs and the remainder one egg. The laying interval was usually 3–5 days (range 2–9 days). Incubation started with the first egg and was evenly shared by both parents during the day, but only the female incubated at night, individual pairs maintained distinctive nest attendance and foraging period timetables, which allowed sufficient time for self-foraging by both parentes. No food was brought into the nest during the pre-laying and incubation periods, but in some pairs food was cached in nearby potholes in cliffs. The incubation period was 56–57 days.