Gorilla Behavior Index revisited: Age,housing and behavior

While personality and temperament assessments are becoming more common in animal science as a means for predicting behavior patterns, they are virtually unstudied in exotic animals outside of chimpanzees. We assessed behavioral profiles of 119 male gorillas using the Gorilla Behavior Index (GBI) and paired this assessment with behavior data on 25 male gorillas from our ongoing analysis of multi-male gorilla groups in North America. This comparison was made to determine if the GBI could be predictive of behavior patterns, with the hope that this could eventually be utilized to aid in the management of multi-male gorilla groups. With few exceptions, GBI factor scores were not related to age of subjects or their current housing condition. Individuals scoring high on the Extroverted factor were more likely to initiate and receive affiliative behaviors, but they were also more likely to initiate contact aggression. Those gorillas who scored high on the Dominant factor were more likely to initiate displacements and less likely to receive them. Gorillas rated as more Fearful were less likely to initiate displacements and those rated as less Understanding were more likely to initiate non-contact aggression. Two facts are evident from these data: (1) further work needs to be done to verify that the GBI is indeed assessing traits and not current behavioral states and (2) any relationships with behavior frequency are relatively weak. In addition to further exploration of the GBI we recommend other assessments to compliment the GBI to establish stronger links between subjective assessments and objective behavior patterns. If established, these short-term assessments may be combined with other historical information on these animals, such as age, rearing history, the number of animals in the group, and the design of the exhibit, to aid in forming and maintaining multi-male gorilla groups in captivity.     

Evaluation of the genetic management of the endangered black‐footed ferret (Mustela nigripes)

Empirical support for the genetic management strategies employed by captive breeding and reintroduction programs is scarce. We evaluated the genetic management plan for the highly endangered black‐footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) developed by the American Zoo and Aquarium Associations (AZA) as a part of the species survival plan (SSP). We contrasted data collected from five microsatellite loci to predictions from a pedigree‐based kinship matrix analysis of the captive black‐footed ferret population. We compared genetic diversity among captive populations managed for continued captive breeding or reintroduction, and among wild‐born individuals from two reintroduced populations. Microsatellite data gave an accurate but only moderately precise estimate of heterozygosity. Genetic diversity was similar in captive populations maintained for breeding and release, and it appears that the recovery program will achieve its goal of maintaining 80% of the genetic diversity of the founder population over 25 years. Wild‐born individuals from reintroduced populations maintained genetic diversity and avoided close inbreeding. We detected small but measurable genetic differentiation between the reintroduced populations. The model of random mating predicted only slightly lower levels of heterozygosity retention compared to the SSP strategy. The random mating strategy may be a viable alternative for managing large, stable, captive populations such as that of the black‐footed ferret. Zoo Biol 22:287–298, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Paternity determination in captive lowland gorillas and orangutans and wild mountain gorillas by microsatellite analysis

Paternity exclusion studies provide useful information for testing certain theories of behavioral ecology and for the management and conservation of both wild and captive populations of endangered species. This study used eight human nuclear microsatellite loci, in the absence of species-specific PCR primers, to genetically identify the sires of 12 captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and 2 captive orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus andPongo p. abelii). Parentage assignments were confirmed by excluding all except a single potential sire for each offspring with the least two loci. Sire-offspring relationships were verified in 12 of the 14 cases, and reassigned in the case of two gorilla offspring. The orangutan paternity typing was supplemented by DNA fingerprinting. Additionally, five of the eight microsatellite loci, in conjunction with behavioral data, were used for a non-exhaustive set of paternity exclusions for five wild mountain gorillas (Gorilla g. beringei). The eight loci described in this study should be useful additions to the tools available for the study of genetics in the great apes.     

North American orangutan species survival plan: Current status and progress in the 1980s

The SSP program for orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus ssp.) was initiated in 1982. Since that time, the Propagation Group has dealt with issues related to improving captive management of the species. Prior to 1982, most orangutans in North America were managed as a single species, though a number of institutions did house their Bornean and Sumatran specimens separately. However, the determination of race at that time was made largely on the basis of physical appearance, a method subsequently proven imprecise. A major achievement of the SSP has been the refinement of orangutan subspecies determination; SSP-sponsored karotyping has determined, on a chromosomal level, the true subspecies of virtually every orangutan managed by the SSP. The validity of these results has been confirmed by recent fieldwork, also completed under the auspices of the SSP. Since 1985, as a result of these captive and field data, the SSP has held to the policy that subspecific hybrid orangutans should not be produced; to that end, there is a moratorium on the breeding of hybrid animals. Another significant step taken by the SSP group is the completion of the sophisticated demographic and genetic analyses, leading to the development of a Masterplan for this species and its captive management. Goals for the near future include refinement of the Masterplan analyses and publication of a new international studbook for the species.     

Development of a masterplan for captive propagation of Siberian tigers in North American Zoos

The status of the Siberian tiger in the wild is endangered. A captive propagation program has been initiated by the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA). A Species Survival Plan (SSP) has been prepared and 50 institutions have agreed to participate. The goals of the SSP include management for longterm survival with retention of maximum genetic diversity.     

Primates got personality,too: Toward an integrative primatology of consistent individual differences in behavior

In recent years, research on animal personality has exploded within the field of behavioral ecology. Consistent individual differences in behavior exist in a wide range of species, and these differences can have fitness consequences and influence several aspects of a species' ecology. In comparison to studies of other animals, however, there has been relatively little research on the behavioral ecology of primate personality. This is surprising given the large body of research within psychology and biomedicine showing that primate personality traits are heritable and linked to health and life history outcomes. In this article, I bring together theoretical perspectives on the ecology and evolution of animal personality with an integrative review of what we know about primate personality from studies conducted on captive, free‐ranging, and wild primates. Incorporating frameworks that emphasize consistency in behavior into primate behavioral ecology research holds promise for improving our understanding of primate behavioral evolution.     

Breeding program for the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) in North America

The lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) has been kept in North American zoological parks since 1930 but has never been a common species in collections. In 1987 this population totaled 28 animals: 15 males and 13 females. A pedigree evaluation in 1987 of the existing population indicated that eight effective founders and one potential founder were represented in the North American herd. Three new potential founders from European captive populations were added to the population in 1987 to increase the number of existing founder lines to 12 animals. As this species is not endangered or threatened in its native habitat, it is not a high priority to qualify for designation as an SSP species. Because of this, the institutions holding lesser kudu in North America decided to join informally and draft a breeding program to better manage this small captive population. This program was designed to minimize inbreeding and equalize genetic representation of founder animals to maximize genetic diversity. It requires a shift in management philosophy to establish stable groups of breeding females at participating institutions while rotating appropriate breeder males through these herds in a controlled manner to ensure minimization of inbreeding and maximization of genetic diversity. It is hoped that this program can serve as a model for the management of other small captive populations of non-SSP species.     

Relationship between behavior, adrenal activity, and environment in zoo-housed western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Monitoring adrenal activity through noninvasive fecal hormone sampling is rapidly gaining popularity as a tool to assess zoo animal welfare. However, few studies have sought to investigate the interrelationships between behavior, adrenal activity, and environment, and ask whether both behavioral and adrenal monitoring strategies are required to assess welfare sufficiently. We present the findings of a 9-month study of a small group (one male, two females) of Western lowland gorillas, Gorilla gorilla gorilla. First, we examined the effect of environmental variables on gorilla behavior. Second, we examined the effect of environmental variables on the concentration of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGC) and the relationship between behavior and FGC. Environmental variables had similar effects on all three gorillas. Negative vigilance of visitors (NVV; staring, posturing, and charging at visitors) significantly increased in all subjects as environmental noise levels increased, and food-related behavior significantly decreased in all subjects as crowd size increased. Exhibit modifications had a number of positive effects on behavior. Notably, when privacy screens were used, NVV significantly decreased in two subjects. We found no significant effects of environmental variables on FGC. However, we did find significant relationships between behavior and FGC in one female. Specifically, her NVV was significantly higher one day before, and on the same day as, raised FGC. Also, hair plucking significantly increased in the two days following raised FGC. Overall, this study demonstrates how concurrent noninvasive fecal and behavioral monitoring can be used for gorilla welfare assessment.     

基于高分辨率网络的大熊猫姿态估计方法

对圈养大熊猫 (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) 开展长期行为监测能及时了解其所处生理周期和健康状况,有助于繁殖饲养机构迅速采取相应繁育保护措施提高饲养管理水平,但目前无法对大熊猫进行24 h监控并及时地获得相应的行为信息。准确的动物姿态估计是动物行为研究的关键,也是诸多下游应用的基础。了解大熊猫的姿态可以促进大熊猫行为研究并提升保护管理水平。为了提高复杂环境下大熊猫姿态估计的准确率,本文以高分辨率网络 (High resolution net, HRNet) 为基础网络架构提出了一种大熊猫姿态估计方法：针对大熊猫不同部位尺度差异较大的问题,在HRNet-32中引入了空洞空间金字塔池化 (Atrous spatial pyramid pooling, ASPP) 模块,在提升特征感受野的同时捕获多尺度信息;同时对大熊猫身体关键点进行分组,引入基于部位的多分支结构来学习特定于每个部位组的表征。多次对比实验结果表明本文所用模型具有较高的检测精度：在PCK@0.05中所用模型精度达到了81.51%。本文提出的方法可为大熊猫的行为分析和健康评估提供技术支撑。     

Within‐Individual Correlations Reveal Link Between a Behavioral Syndrome,Condition, and Cortisol in Free‐Ranging Belding's Ground Squirrels

Animals often exhibit consistent individual differences in behavior (i.e., animal personality) and correlations between behaviors (i.e., behavioral syndromes), yet the causes of those patterns of behavioral variation remain insufficiently understood. Many authors hypothesize that state‐dependent behavior produces animal personality and behavioral syndromes. However, empirical studies assessing patterns of covariation among behavioral traits and state variables have produced mixed results. New statistical methods that partition correlations into between‐individual and residual within‐individual correlations offer an opportunity to more sufficiently quantify relationships among behaviors and state variables to assess hypotheses of animal personality and behavioral syndromes. In a population of wild Belding's ground squirrels (Urocitellus beldingi), we repeatedly measured activity, exploration, and response to restraint behaviors alongside glucocorticoids and nutritional condition. We used multivariate mixed models to determine whether between‐individual or within‐individual correlations drive phenotypic relationships among traits. Squirrels had consistent individual differences for all five traits. At the between‐individual level, activity and exploration were positively correlated whereas both traits negatively correlated with response to restraint, demonstrating a behavioral syndrome. At the within‐individual level, condition negatively correlated with cortisol, activity, and exploration. Importantly, this indicates that although behavior is state‐dependent, which may play a role in animal personality and behavioral syndromes, feedback mechanisms between condition and behavior appear not to produce consistent individual differences in behavior and correlations between them.     

Extinction risk assessment for the species survival plan (SSP®) population of the Bali mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi)

The Bali mynah Species Survival Plan (SSP^®), an Association of Zoos and Aquariums program, strives to maintain the genetic and demographic health of its population, avoid unplanned changes in size, and minimize the risk of population extinction. The SSP population meets current demographic and genetic objectives with a population size of 209 birds at 61 institutions and 96% genetic diversity (GD) retained from the source population. However, participating institutions have expressed concerns regarding space allocation, target population size (TPS), breeding restrictions, inbreeding depression, and harvest in relation to future population availability and viability. Based on these factors, we assess five questions with a quantitative risk assessment, specifically a population viability analysis (PVA) using ZooRisk software. Using an individual-based stochastic model, we project potential population changes under different conditions (e.g. changes in TPS and genetic management) to identify the most effective management actions. Our projections indicate that under current management conditions, population decline and extinction are unlikely and that although GD will decline over 100 years the projected loss does not exceed levels acceptable to population managers (less than 90% GD retained). Model simulations indicate that the combination of two genetic management strategies (i.e. priority breeding based on mean kinship and inbreeding avoidance) benefits the retention of GD and reduces the accumulation of inbreeding. The current TPS (250) is greater than necessary to minimize the risk of extinction for the SSP population but any reduction in TPS must be accompanied by continued application of genetic management. If carefully planned, birds can be harvested for transfer to Bali for a reintroduction program without jeopardizing the SSP population. Zoo Biol 28:230–252, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Evidence for African origins of founders of the asiatic lion species survival plan

The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) exists in the wild as a single relict population of approximately 250 individuals in the protected Gir Forest Sanctuary in western India. In 1981, a species survival plan (SSP) for the Asiatic lion was established by the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums to manage the 200 + descendants of Asiatic lions in captivity in western zoological facilities. This captive population was derived from seven founders. In order to compare the genetic structure of the Gir Forest population with that of the captive SSP population, a genetic survey of 46 electrophoretic allozyme systems resolved from extracts of lion blood was undertaken by using 29 SSP Asiatic lions and 28 wild-caught or captive-bred lions maintained at the Sakkarbaug Zoo in India but originally derived from the Gir Forest. The Gir lion population was found to be genetically monomorphic at each of 46 allozyme loci. This was in contrast to several African lion (Panthera leo leo) populations, which show moderate levels of allozyme variation at the same loci. The SSP lion population was polymorphic at three allozyme loci (IDHI, TF, and PTI) for alleles that were previously found only in African lion populations. Pedigree analysis of the genetic transmission of these three biochemical loci demonstrated that two of the five primary founder animals of the SSP Asiatic lion population (a breeding pair originally imported from the Trivandrum Zoo in southern India) were descendants of the African subspecies. Three other founder animals were pure Asian. A retrospective SSP pedigree analysis of two morphologic characters (prominent abdominal fold and pairing of infraorbital foramen) that are partially diagnostic for persica vs leo was consistent with this conclusion as well. The implications for the management of small captive populations of threatened species and of the Asiatic lion SSP population are discussed.     

Preference for structural environmental features in captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Increased interest in the behavioral effects of captive environments and advances in zoo design have resulted in a proliferation of “naturalistic” animal habitats. Although scientists have demonstrated that such exhibits have some positive effects on behavior, very little is known about the complex relationships between these specialized environments and behavior. This study sought to determine preferences for structural environmental features, such as slope and trees, exhibited by captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). An average of 496 location scans were collected on each of 23 gorillas, housed in 6 groups. The results indicate that enclosure usage was significantly associated with the features of slope, nearness to holding facility, and presence of environmental components additional to substrate (e.g., tree or rock). In particular, areas with flat ground that were near the holding building and that included at least one component additional to substrate were preferred by all animals. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Consistent individual behavior: evidence of personality in black bears

Personality is defined as consistency in individual differences in organismal behavior across time or context, a phenomenon of interest within behavioral and evolutionary ecology. Empirical data have revealed an ever-increasing number and diversity of taxa that display these phenotypic patterns in both wild and captive settings. Moreover, these behavioral traits are frequently linked to wild behavior, life history strategies, and measures of individual fitness. Understanding personality is of particular importance for some animals, such as large carnivores, which may express maladaptive behavior that can lead to conflict with humans. To date, few studies of personality exist on large carnivores and none have investigated the presence of personality in black bears (Ursus americanus). Through focal animal sampling, and open field, novel object, and startle object tests, we investigate the potential for personality in captive black bear cubs. Results indicate the presence of personality, with consistency in behavior across five metrics for the bold-shy axis, and eight sampling events measuring responses for the activity axis. Information presented here reveals the presence of personality in black bear cubs, and may provide a framework for future investigations into relationships of personality with ecology and life history.     

Activity‐based exhibition of five mammalian species: Evaluation of behavioral changes

Activity‐based management of captive animals involves the training and movement of animals among several exhibits and holding areas. We studied the effectiveness of this system in producing variation in behavior, controlling stereotypies, and eliciting natural behaviors. Twelve animals representing five species of mammals (orangutans, siamangs, tapirs, babirusa, and Sumatran and Siberian tigers) were the subjects of focal observations measuring activity levels, stereotypies, natural behaviors, and space utilization. Statistical analysis was used to assess the association between variation in behavior and the movement among the four exhibits. For several animals, the persistence of behavioral changes was studied over a period of 3 years. We also examined the influence of the previous animal in the exhibit on the focal animal. Moving animals among the exhibits affected activity levels and/or space utilization in all animals in the activity‐based management system. In cases for which 3‐year data were available, there was evidence of habituation to the novelty of changing exhibits. Stereotypies, usually in the form of pacing, were affected by exhibits, providing the opportunity to manipulate these behavior patterns by exhibit placement. Natural behaviors in the form of urine‐spraying by the female tapir and the Sumatran tiger were affected by which animal had previously been in the exhibit. The results support the conclusion that exposure to varying exhibits produces variation in the behavior of the animals and elicits natural behaviors that would be unlikely to occur in a traditional single‐species exhibit. Activity‐based management provides unique opportunities for the behavioral enrichment of captive animals. Zoo Biol 22:269–285, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Are shy individuals less behaviorally variable? Insights from a captive population of mouse lemurs

Increasingly, individual variation in personality has become a focus of behavioral research in animal systems. Boldness and shyness, often quantified as the tendency to explore novel situations, are seen as personality traits important to the fitness landscape of individuals. Here we tested for individual differences within and across contexts in behavioral responses of captive mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus) to novel objects, novel foods, and handling. We report consistent differences in behavioral responses for objects and handling. We also found that the responses to handling and novel objects were correlated and repeatable. Lastly, we show that shyer individuals may show less variability in their behavioral responses. This study provides new information on the potential for behavioral syndromes in this species and highlights differences in the degree to which behavioral types (e.g., shy/bold) vary in their behavioral responses.     

Brain organization of gorillas reflects species differences in ecology

Gorillas include separate eastern (Gorilla beringei) and western (Gorilla gorilla) African species that diverged from each other approximately 2 million years ago. Although anatomical, genetic, behavioral, and socioecological differences have been noted among gorilla populations, little is known about variation in their brain structure. This study examines neuroanatomical variation between gorilla species using structural neuroimaging. Postmortem magnetic resonance images were obtained of brains from 18 captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), 15 wild mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), and 3 Grauer's gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri) (both wild and captive). Stereologic methods were used to measure volumes of brain structures, including left and right frontal lobe gray and white matter, temporal lobe gray and white matter, parietal and occipital lobes gray and white matter, insular gray matter, hippocampus, striatum, thalamus, each hemisphere and the vermis of the cerebellum, and the external and extreme capsules together with the claustrum. Among the species differences, the volumes of the hippocampus and cerebellum were significantly larger in G. gorilla than G. beringei. These anatomical differences may relate to divergent ecological adaptations of the two species. Specifically, G. gorilla engages in more arboreal locomotion and thus may rely more on cerebellar circuits. In addition, they tend to eat more fruit and have larger home ranges and consequently might depend more on spatial mapping functions of the hippocampus. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:252–262, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

圈养马麝的个性分类

本研究在甘肃兴隆山国家级自然保护区马麝繁育场展开,分别于2012年7月和2013年8月,针对374只圈养马麝,采用基于量表的个性评价法进行评价调查。结果表明:可建立包含17个个性项目的圈养马麝个性量表,因子分析显示每个项目公因子方差和载荷均大于0. 4,各因子累计贡献率为60. 33%,表明此量表具有较好的结构效度。此外Cronbach’sα系数为0. 787,表明量表具有较高的内部一致性信度,量表设计合理;因子分析和聚类分析结果显示,可将圈养马麝划分为五大个性维度:侵略性、社会性、刻板性、温顺性、活跃性。研究发现,圈养马麝个性维度与野生个体的个性类型划分存在差异,主要是受圈养条件和人为干扰等影响。圈养马麝个性量表和五大个性维度的建立对指导马麝繁育管理具有重要实践价值,填补了马麝个性研究的空缺,并为进一步进行麝类动物个性研究奠定了基础。另外,此类个性层次研究方法具有较好区分度,可为其他动物个性的初期研究提供参考。     

Evaluating ex situ conservation projects: Genetic structure of the captive population of the Arabian sand cat

Ex situ conservation plays an increasingly important role in the conservation of endangered species. Molecular genetic markers can be helpful to assess the status of captive breeding programmes. We present the first molecular genetic analysis of the captive population of the Arabian sand cat (Felis margarita harrisoni) using microsatellites. Our data indicates that the captive population of F. m. harrisoni comprises three genetic clusters, which are based on different founder lineages. Genetic diversity was relatively high, the effective population size even exceeded the number of founders. This was presumably caused by subsequently integrating unrelated, genetically diverse founders into the captive population and a careful management based on minimizing kinship. However, we detected an error in the studbook records, which might have led to incestuous matings and underlines the usefulness of molecular evaluations in captive breeding programmes for endangered species.