Evidence that adaptation of suppression cannot account for auditory enhancement or enhanced forward masking.

Delaying the onset of a signal relative to the onset of a simultaneous notched masker often improves the ability of listeners to 'hear out' the signal at both threshold and suprathreshold levels. Viemeister & Bacon (J. acoust. Soc. Am., 71, 1502-1507 (1982)) suggested that such auditory enhancement effects could be accounted for if the suppression produced by the masker on the signal frequency adapted, thereby releasing the signal from suppression. In support of their hypothesis, Viemeister & Bacon reported that a masker preceded by an enhancer having no component at the signal frequency produced more forward masking than did the masker by itself. Here evidence is provided from five new experiments showing that adaptation of psychophysical two-tone suppression is inadequate to account either for auditory enhancement effects or for the enhanced forward masking demonstrated by Viemeister & Bacon.     

Investigating the Neural Correlates of a Streaming Percept in an Informational-Masking Paradigm

Humans routinely segregate a complex acoustic scene into different auditory streams, through the extraction of bottom-up perceptual cues and the use of top-down selective attention. To determine the neural mechanisms underlying this process, neural responses obtained through magnetoencephalography (MEG) were correlated with behavioral performance in the context of an informational masking paradigm. In half the trials, subjects were asked to detect frequency deviants in a target stream, consisting of a rhythmic tone sequence, embedded in a separate masker stream composed of a random cloud of tones. In the other half of the trials, subjects were exposed to identical stimuli but asked to perform a different task—to detect tone-length changes in the random cloud of tones. In order to verify that the normalized neural response to the target sequence served as an indicator of streaming, we correlated neural responses with behavioral performance under a variety of stimulus parameters (target tone rate, target tone frequency, and the “protection zone”, that is, the spectral area with no tones around the target frequency) and attentional states (changing task objective while maintaining the same stimuli). In all conditions that facilitated target/masker streaming behaviorally, MEG normalized neural responses also changed in a manner consistent with the behavior. Thus, attending to the target stream caused a significant increase in power and phase coherence of the responses in recording channels correlated with an increase in the behavioral performance of the listeners. Normalized neural target responses also increased as the protection zone widened and as the frequency of the target tones increased. Finally, when the target sequence rate increased, the buildup of the normalized neural responses was significantly faster, mirroring the accelerated buildup of the streaming percepts. Our data thus support close links between the perceptual and neural consequences of the auditory stream segregation.     

Modulation discrimination interference and auditory grouping.

The detection of a change in the modulation pattern of a (target) carrier frequency, fc (for example a change in the depth of amplitude or frequency modulation, AM or FM) can be adversely affected by the presence of other modulated sounds (maskers) at frequencies remote from fc, an effect called modulation discrimination interference (MDI). MDI cannot be explained in terms of interaction of the sounds in the peripheral auditory system. It may result partly from a tendency for sounds which are modulated in a similar way to be perceptually 'grouped', i.e. heard as a single sound. To test this idea, MDI for the detection of a change in AM depth was measured as a function of stimulus variables known to affect perceptual grouping, namely overall duration and onset and offset asynchrony between the masking and target sounds. In parallel experiments, subjects were presented with a series of pairs of sounds, the target alone and the target with maskers, and were asked to rate how clearly the modulation of the target could be heard in the complex mixture. The results suggest that two factors contribute to MDI. One factor is difficulty in hearing a pitch corresponding to the target frequency. This factor appears to be strongly affected by perceptual grouping. Its effects can be reduced or abolished by asynchronous gating of the target and masker. The second factor is a specific difficulty in hearing the modulation of the target, or in distinguishing that modulation from the modulation of other sounds that are present. This factor has effects even under conditions promoting perceptual segregation of the target and masker.     

The role of predictive models in the formation of auditory streams.

Sounds provide us with useful information about our environment which complements that provided by other senses, but also poses specific processing problems. How does the auditory system distentangle sounds from different sound sources? And what is it that allows intermittent sound events from the same source to be associated with each other? Here we review findings from a wide range of studies using the auditory streaming paradigm in order to formulate a unified account of the processes underlying auditory perceptual organization. We present new computational modelling results which replicate responses in primary auditory cortex [Fishman, Y.I., Arezzo, J.C., Steinschneider, M., 2004. Auditory stream segregation in monkey auditory cortex: effects of frequency separation, presentation rate, and tone duration. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 116, 1656-1670; Fishman, Y. I., Reser, D. H., Arezzo, J.C., Steinschneider, M., 2001. Neural correlates of auditory stream segregation in primary auditory cortex of the awake monkey. Hear. Res. 151, 167-187] to tone sequences. We also present the results of a perceptual experiment which confirm the bi-stable nature of auditory streaming, and the proposal that the gradual build-up of streaming may be an artefact of averaging across many subjects [Pressnitzer, D., Hupé, J. M., 2006. Temporal dynamics of auditory and visual bi-stability reveal common principles of perceptual organization. Curr. Biol. 16(13), 1351-1357.]. Finally we argue that in order to account for all of the experimental findings, computational models of auditory stream segregation require four basic processing elements; segregation, predictive modelling, competition and adaptation, and that it is the formation of effective predictive models which allows the system to keep track of different sound sources in a complex auditory environment.     

Effects of Active and Passive Hearing Protection Devices on Sound Source Localization,Speech Recognition,and Tone Detection

Hearing protection devices (HPDs) such as earplugs offer to mitigate noise exposure and reduce the incidence of hearing loss among persons frequently exposed to intense sound. However, distortions of spatial acoustic information and reduced audibility of low-intensity sounds caused by many existing HPDs can make their use untenable in high-risk (e.g., military or law enforcement) environments where auditory situational awareness is imperative. Here we assessed (1) sound source localization accuracy using a head-turning paradigm, (2) speech-in-noise recognition using a modified version of the QuickSIN test, and (3) tone detection thresholds using a two-alternative forced-choice task. Subjects were 10 young normal-hearing males. Four different HPDs were tested (two active, two passive), including two new and previously untested devices. Relative to unoccluded (control) performance, all tested HPDs significantly degraded performance across tasks, although one active HPD slightly improved high-frequency tone detection thresholds and did not degrade speech recognition. Behavioral data were examined with respect to head-related transfer functions measured using a binaural manikin with and without tested HPDs in place. Data reinforce previous reports that HPDs significantly compromise a variety of auditory perceptual facilities, particularly sound localization due to distortions of high-frequency spectral cues that are important for the avoidance of front-back confusions.     

Hearing Sensitivity to Shifts of Rippled-Spectrum Sound Signals in Masking Noise

The goal of the study was to enlarge knowledge of discrimination of complex sound signals by the auditory system in masking noise. For that, influence of masking noise on detection of shift of rippled spectrum was studied in normal listeners. The signal was a shift of ripple phase within a 0.5-oct wide rippled spectrum centered at 2 kHz. The ripples were frequency-proportional (throughout the band, ripple spacing was a constant proportion of the ripple center frequency). Simultaneous masker was a 0.5-oct noise below-, on-, or above the signal band. Both the low-frequency (center frequency 1 kHz) and on-frequency (the same center frequency as for the signal) maskers increased the thresholds for detecting ripple phase shift. However, the threshold dependence on the masker level was different for these two maskers. For the on-frequency masker, the masking effect primarily depended on the masker/signal ratio: the threshold steeply increased at a ratio of 5 dB, and no shift was detectable at a ratio of 10 dB. For the low-frequency masker, the masking effect primarily depended on the masker level: the threshold increased at a masker level of 80 dB SPL, and no shift was detectable at a masker level of 90 dB (for a signal level of 50 dB) or 100 dB (for a signal level of 80 dB). The high-frequency masker had little effect. The data were successfully simulated using an excitation-pattern model. In this model, the effect of the on-frequency masker appeared to be primarily due to a decrease of ripple depth. The effect of the low-frequency masker appeared due to widening of the auditory filters at high sound levels.     

Effect of harmonicity on the detection of a signal in a complex masker and on spatial release from masking

The amount of masking of sounds from one source (signals) by sounds from a competing source (maskers) heavily depends on the sound characteristics of the masker and the signal and on their relative spatial location. Numerous studies investigated the ability to detect a signal in a speech or a noise masker or the effect of spatial separation of signal and masker on the amount of masking, but there is a lack of studies investigating the combined effects of many cues on the masking as is typical for natural listening situations. The current study using free-field listening systematically evaluates the combined effects of harmonicity and inharmonicity cues in multi-tone maskers and cues resulting from spatial separation of target signal and masker on the detection of a pure tone in a multi-tone or a noise masker. A linear binaural processing model was implemented to predict the masked thresholds in order to estimate whether the observed thresholds can be accounted for by energetic masking in the auditory periphery or whether other effects are involved. Thresholds were determined for combinations of two target frequencies (1 and 8 kHz), two spatial configurations (masker and target either co-located or spatially separated by 90 degrees azimuth), and five different masker types (four complex multi-tone stimuli, one noise masker). A spatial separation of target and masker resulted in a release from masking for all masker types. The amount of masking significantly depended on the masker type and frequency range. The various harmonic and inharmonic relations between target and masker or between components of the masker resulted in a complex pattern of increased or decreased masked thresholds in comparison to the predicted energetic masking. The results indicate that harmonicity cues affect the detectability of a tonal target in a complex masker.     

Neural processing of auditory looming in the human brain

Acoustic intensity change, along with interaural, spectral, and reverberation information, is an important cue for the perception of auditory motion. Approaching sound sources produce increases in intensity, and receding sound sources produce corresponding decreases. Human listeners typically overestimate increasing compared to equivalent decreasing sound intensity and underestimate the time to contact of approaching sound sources. These characteristics could provide a selective advantage by increasing the margin of safety for response to looming objects. Here, we used dynamic intensity and functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural underpinnings of the perceptual priority for rising intensity. We found that, consistent with activation by horizontal and vertical auditory apparent motion paradigms, rising and falling intensity activated the right temporal plane more than constant intensity. Rising compared to falling intensity activated a distributed neural network subserving space recognition, auditory motion perception, and attention and comprising the superior temporal sulci and the middle temporal gyri, the right temporoparietal junction, the right motor and premotor cortices, the left cerebellar cortex, and a circumscribed region in the midbrain. This anisotropic processing of acoustic intensity change may reflect the salience of rising intensity produced by looming sources in natural environments.     

后掩蔽效应对大棕蝠下丘神经元声反应的影响

以回声定位蝙蝠为模式动物,采用在体动物细胞外单位记录法,研究了后掩蔽效应对下丘神经元声反应的影响。结果显示,部分神经元(38％,12／31)对测试声刺激的反应明显受到掩蔽声的抑制,其后掩蔽效应强弱与掩蔽声和测试声的相对强度差(inter-stimulus level difference,SLD),以及测试声与掩蔽声之间的间隔时间(inter-stimulus onset asynchrony,SOA)有关：当掩蔽声强度升高或测试声强度降低时,后掩蔽效应增强;而SOA的缩短,亦可见后掩蔽效应增强。另外,相当数量的神经元(52%,16／31)对测试声刺激的反应并不受掩蔽声的影响,其中有的神经元只有在特定SLD和SOA时,才表现出后掩蔽效应。而少数下丘神经元(10％,3／31)在特定SLD和SOA时,掩蔽声对测试声反应有易化作用。上述结果表明,部分下丘神经元参与了声认知活动中的后掩蔽形成过程,推测下丘神经元在定型声反应特性中,对掩蔽声诱导的兴奋前抑制性输入与测试声诱导的兴奋性输入之间的时相性动态整合起关键作用。     

Temporal summation under masking conditions and speech recognition

Temporal summation was estimated by measuring the detection thresholds for pulses with durations of 1–50 ms in the presence of noise maskers. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of the spectral profiles and intensities of noise maskers on temporal summation, to investigate the appearance of signs of peripheral processing of pulses with various frequency-time structures in auditory responses, and to test the opportunity to use temporal summation for speech recognition. The central frequencies of pulses and maskers were similar. The maskers had ripple structures of the amplitude spectra of two types. In some maskers, the central frequencies coincided with the spectrum humps, whereas in other maskers, they coincided with spectrum dip (so-called on- and off-maskers). When the auditory system differentiated the masker humps, then the difference between the thresholds of recognition of the stimuli presented together with each of two types of maskers was not equal to zero. The assessment of temporal summation and the difference of the thresholds of pulse recognition under conditions of the presentation of the on- and off-maskers allowed us to make a conclusion on auditory sensitivity and the resolution of the spectral structure of maskers or frequency selectivity during presentation of pulses of various durations in local frequency areas. In order to estimate the effect of the dynamic properties of hearing on sensitivity and frequency selectivity, we changed the intensity of maskers. We measured temporal summation under the conditions of the presentation of on- and off-maskers of various intensities in two frequency ranges (2 and 4 kHz) in four subjects with normal hearing and one person with age-related hearing impairments who complained of a decrease in speech recognition under noise conditions. Pulses shorter than 10 ms were considered as simple models of consonant sounds, whereas tone pulses longer than 10 ms were considered as simple models of vowel sounds. In subjects with normal hearing in the range of moderate masker intensities, we observed an enhancement of temporal summation when the short pulses or consonant sounds were presented and an improvement of the resolution of the broken structure of masker spectra when the short and tone pulses, i.e., consonant and vowel sounds, were presented. We supposed that the enhancement of the summation was related to the refractoriness of the fibers of the auditory nerve. In the range of 4 kHz, the subject with age-related hearing impairments did not recognize the ripple structure of the maskers in the presence of the short pulses or consonant sounds. We supposed that these impairments were caused by abnormal synchronization of the responses of the auditory nerve fibers induced by the pulses, and this resulted in a decrease in speech recognition.     

Music in Our Ears: The Biological Bases of Musical Timbre Perception

Timbre is the attribute of sound that allows humans and other animals to distinguish among different sound sources. Studies based on psychophysical judgments of musical timbre, ecological analyses of sound''s physical characteristics as well as machine learning approaches have all suggested that timbre is a multifaceted attribute that invokes both spectral and temporal sound features. Here, we explored the neural underpinnings of musical timbre. We used a neuro-computational framework based on spectro-temporal receptive fields, recorded from over a thousand neurons in the mammalian primary auditory cortex as well as from simulated cortical neurons, augmented with a nonlinear classifier. The model was able to perform robust instrument classification irrespective of pitch and playing style, with an accuracy of 98.7%. Using the same front end, the model was also able to reproduce perceptual distance judgments between timbres as perceived by human listeners. The study demonstrates that joint spectro-temporal features, such as those observed in the mammalian primary auditory cortex, are critical to provide the rich-enough representation necessary to account for perceptual judgments of timbre by human listeners, as well as recognition of musical instruments.     

Effect of Flanking Sounds on the Auditory Continuity Illusion

Background

The auditory continuity illusion or the perceptual restoration of a target sound briefly interrupted by an extraneous sound has been shown to depend on masking. However, little is known about factors other than masking.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We examined whether a sequence of flanking transient sounds affects the apparent continuity of a target tone alternated with a bandpass noise at regular intervals. The flanking sounds significantly increased the limit of perceiving apparent continuity in terms of the maximum target level at a fixed noise level, irrespective of the frequency separation between the target and flanking sounds: the flanking sounds enhanced the continuity illusion. This effect was dependent on the temporal relationship between the flanking sounds and noise bursts.

Conclusions/Significance

The spectrotemporal characteristics of the enhancement effect suggest that a mechanism to compensate for exogenous attentional distraction may contribute to the continuity illusion.     

Two-Stage Processing of Sounds Explains Behavioral Performance Variations due to Changes in Stimulus Contrast and Selective Attention: An MEG Study

Selectively attending to task-relevant sounds whilst ignoring background noise is one of the most amazing feats performed by the human brain. Here, we studied the underlying neural mechanisms by recording magnetoencephalographic (MEG) responses of 14 healthy human subjects while they performed a near-threshold auditory discrimination task vs. a visual control task of similar difficulty. The auditory stimuli consisted of notch-filtered continuous noise masker sounds, and of 1020-Hz target tones occasionally () replacing 1000-Hz standard tones of 300-ms duration that were embedded at the center of the notches, the widths of which were parametrically varied. As a control for masker effects, tone-evoked responses were additionally recorded without masker sound. Selective attention to tones significantly increased the amplitude of the onset M100 response at 100 ms to the standard tones during presence of the masker sounds especially with notches narrower than the critical band. Further, attention modulated sustained response most clearly at 300–400 ms time range from sound onset, with narrower notches than in case of the M100, thus selectively reducing the masker-induced suppression of the tone-evoked response. Our results show evidence of a multiple-stage filtering mechanism of sensory input in the human auditory cortex: 1) one at early (100 ms) latencies bilaterally in posterior parts of the secondary auditory areas, and 2) adaptive filtering of attended sounds from task-irrelevant background masker at longer latency (300 ms) in more medial auditory cortical regions, predominantly in the left hemisphere, enhancing processing of near-threshold sounds.     

Interaural Level Differences Do Not Suffice for Restoring Spatial Release from Masking in Simulated Cochlear Implant Listening

Spatial release from masking refers to a benefit for speech understanding. It occurs when a target talker and a masker talker are spatially separated. In those cases, speech intelligibility for target speech is typically higher than when both talkers are at the same location. In cochlear implant listeners, spatial release from masking is much reduced or absent compared with normal hearing listeners. Perhaps this reduced spatial release occurs because cochlear implant listeners cannot effectively attend to spatial cues. Three experiments examined factors that may interfere with deploying spatial attention to a target talker masked by another talker. To simulate cochlear implant listening, stimuli were vocoded with two unique features. First, we used 50-Hz low-pass filtered speech envelopes and noise carriers, strongly reducing the possibility of temporal pitch cues; second, co-modulation was imposed on target and masker utterances to enhance perceptual fusion between the two sources. Stimuli were presented over headphones. Experiments 1 and 2 presented high-fidelity spatial cues with unprocessed and vocoded speech. Experiment 3 maintained faithful long-term average interaural level differences but presented scrambled interaural time differences with vocoded speech. Results show a robust spatial release from masking in Experiments 1 and 2, and a greatly reduced spatial release in Experiment 3. Faithful long-term average interaural level differences were insufficient for producing spatial release from masking. This suggests that appropriate interaural time differences are necessary for restoring spatial release from masking, at least for a situation where there are few viable alternative segregation cues.     

Masking effect of different durations of forward masker sound on acoustical responses of mouse inferior collicular neurons to probe sound

To study the effects of different durations of forward masker sound on neuronal firing and rate-intensity function(RIF)of mouse inferior collicular(IC)neurons,a tone relative to 5 dB above the minimum threshold(re MT+5 dB)of the best frequency of recorded neurons was used as forward masker sound under free field stimulation condition.The masker durations used were 40,60,80,and 100 ms.Results showed that as masker duration was increased,inhibition in neuronal firing was enhanced(P＜0.0001,n=41)and the latency of neurons was lengthened(P＜0.01,n=41).In addition,among 41 inhibited IC neurons,90.2%(37/41)exhibited narrowed dynamic range(DR)when masker sound duration was increased(P＜0.0001),whereas the DR of 9.8%(4/41)became wider.These data suggest that masking effects of different durations of forward masker sound might be correlated with the amplitude and duration of inhibitory input to IC neurons elicited by the masker sound.     

抑制性频谱整合对大棕蝠下丘神经元声强敏感性的影响

自由声场条件下 ,采用特定双声刺激方法研究了不同频率通道之间的非线性整合对下丘神经元声强敏感性的调制作用。实验在 1 2只麻醉与镇定的大棕蝠 (Eptesicusfuscus)上进行 ,双电极同步记录 2个配对神经元的声反应动作电位。主要结果如下 :1 )所获 1 1 0个 (5 5对 )配对神经元中 ,85 5 %表现为抑制性频谱整合作用 ,其余 1 4 5 %为易化性频谱整合 ;2 )阈上 1 0dB (SPL)放电率抑制百分比与神经元最佳频率 (BF)及记录深度呈负相关 ;3)抑制效率随声刺激强度升高而逐步下降 ;4 )当掩蔽声分别位于神经元兴奋性频率调谐曲线(FTC)内 (MSin) /外 (MSout)时 ,其抑制效率存在差异。前者的放电率抑制百分比及声反应动力学范围(DR)下降百分比均显著高于后者 ;5 )抑制性频谱整合导致 3类DR改变 :6 1 6 %为下降、 1 0 9%增加、另有2 7 5 %变化小于 1 0 %。本结果进一步支持如下设想 :下丘不同频率通道之间的抑制性频谱整合参与了对强度编码的主动神经调制活动     

Retroactive Streaming Fails to Improve Concurrent Vowel Identification

The sequential organization of sound over time can interact with the concurrent organization of sounds across frequency. Previous studies using simple acoustic stimuli have suggested that sequential streaming cues can retroactively affect the perceptual organization of sounds that have already occurred. It is unknown whether such effects generalize to the perception of speech sounds. Listeners’ ability to identify two simultaneously presented vowels was measured in the following conditions: no context, a preceding context stream (precursors), and a following context stream (postcursors). The context stream was comprised of brief repetitions of one of the two vowels, and the primary measure of performance was listeners’ ability to identify the other vowel. Results in the precursor condition showed a significant advantage for the identification of the second vowel compared to the no-context condition, suggesting that sequential grouping mechanisms aided the segregation of the concurrent vowels, in agreement with previous work. However, performance in the postcursor condition was significantly worse compared to the no-context condition, providing no evidence for an effect of stream segregation, and suggesting a possible interference effect. Two additional experiments involving inharmonic (jittered) vowels were performed to provide additional cues to aid retroactive stream segregation; however, neither manipulation enabled listeners to improve their identification of the target vowel. Taken together with earlier studies, the results suggest that retroactive streaming may require large spectral differences between concurrent sources and thus may not provide a robust segregation cue for natural broadband sounds such as speech.     

On the Relevance of Natural Stimuli for the Study of Brainstem Correlates: The Example of Consonance Perception

Some combinations of musical tones sound pleasing to Western listeners, and are termed consonant, while others sound discordant, and are termed dissonant. The perceptual phenomenon of consonance has been traced to the acoustic property of harmonicity. It has been repeatedly shown that neural correlates of consonance can be found as early as the auditory brainstem as reflected in the harmonicity of the scalp-recorded frequency-following response (FFR). “Neural Pitch Salience” (NPS) measured from FFRs—essentially a time-domain equivalent of the classic pattern recognition models of pitch—has been found to correlate with behavioral judgments of consonance for synthetic stimuli. Following the idea that the auditory system has evolved to process behaviorally relevant natural sounds, and in order to test the generalizability of this finding made with synthetic tones, we recorded FFRs for consonant and dissonant intervals composed of synthetic and natural stimuli. We found that NPS correlated with behavioral judgments of consonance and dissonance for synthetic but not for naturalistic sounds. These results suggest that while some form of harmonicity can be computed from the auditory brainstem response, the general percept of consonance and dissonance is not captured by this measure. It might either be represented in the brainstem in a different code (such as place code) or arise at higher levels of the auditory pathway. Our findings further illustrate the importance of using natural sounds, as a complementary tool to fully-controlled synthetic sounds, when probing auditory perception.     

Training-induced plasticity of auditory localization in adult mammals

Accurate auditory localization relies on neural computations based on spatial cues present in the sound waves at each ear. The values of these cues depend on the size, shape, and separation of the two ears and can therefore vary from one individual to another. As with other perceptual skills, the neural circuits involved in spatial hearing are shaped by experience during development and retain some capacity for plasticity in later life. However, the factors that enable and promote plasticity of auditory localization in the adult brain are unknown. Here we show that mature ferrets can rapidly relearn to localize sounds after having their spatial cues altered by reversibly occluding one ear, but only if they are trained to use these cues in a behaviorally relevant task, with greater and more rapid improvement occurring with more frequent training. We also found that auditory adaptation is possible in the absence of vision or error feedback. Finally, we show that this process involves a shift in sensitivity away from the abnormal auditory spatial cues to other cues that are less affected by the earplug. The mature auditory system is therefore capable of adapting to abnormal spatial information by reweighting different localization cues. These results suggest that training should facilitate acclimatization to hearing aids in the hearing impaired.     

Tone Language Speakers and Musicians Share Enhanced Perceptual and Cognitive Abilities for Musical Pitch: Evidence for Bidirectionality between the Domains of Language and Music

Psychophysiological evidence suggests that music and language are intimately coupled such that experience/training in one domain can influence processing required in the other domain. While the influence of music on language processing is now well-documented, evidence of language-to-music effects have yet to be firmly established. Here, using a cross-sectional design, we compared the performance of musicians to that of tone-language (Cantonese) speakers on tasks of auditory pitch acuity, music perception, and general cognitive ability (e.g., fluid intelligence, working memory). While musicians demonstrated superior performance on all auditory measures, comparable perceptual enhancements were observed for Cantonese participants, relative to English-speaking nonmusicians. These results provide evidence that tone-language background is associated with higher auditory perceptual performance for music listening. Musicians and Cantonese speakers also showed superior working memory capacity relative to nonmusician controls, suggesting that in addition to basic perceptual enhancements, tone-language background and music training might also be associated with enhanced general cognitive abilities. Our findings support the notion that tone language speakers and musically trained individuals have higher performance than English-speaking listeners for the perceptual-cognitive processing necessary for basic auditory as well as complex music perception. These results illustrate bidirectional influences between the domains of music and language.