植物三萜皂苷生物合成途径及调控机制研究进展

三萜皂苷是一类天然存在的结构多样的三萜苷类化合物,广泛分布于植物中.三萜皂苷不仅是植物抵御病原微生物和食草动物的防御化合物,还具有多种药理活性,被广泛应用在医药、日化、食品、农业等领域.近年来,随着科学技术的发展和研究的深入,植物三萜皂苷生物合成途径的基本框架及调控机制研究已经取得了一定的进展.植物三萜皂苷种类繁多、结...     

乳酸菌肽聚糖的研究进展

肽聚糖是乳酸菌细胞壁的必需成分,它的化学结构较为保守固定,而其合成是一个涉及多步反应的复杂过程。乳酸菌肽聚糖具有多种生物学活性,比如免疫增强功能、抗感染、抗肿瘤及抗过敏等。本文对乳酸菌肽聚糖的组成结构和生物学活性进行了简要的介绍,重点综述了近年来乳酸菌肽聚糖代谢及其调控过程的研究进展,并指出了乳酸菌肽聚糖未来研究的方向。     

植物木质化过程及其调控的研究进展

植物的木质化是指木质素单体氧化聚合形成的木质素在细胞壁上沉积的过程.由于涉及多步酶促反应,因而它是一个被精细调控的复杂而动态的生物学过程.木质化不仅有利于维持植物正常生命活动,而且能够增强植物适应外界生物和非生物胁迫的能力.更为重要的是,植物细胞壁是地球上最为丰富的可再生能源物质,因此,开展植物细胞壁木质化的研究具有重...     

昆虫肽聚糖识别蛋白研究进展

在脊椎动物和非脊椎动物中,识别非己是天生免疫反应中的第一步。肽聚糖是细菌细胞壁的必需成分,属于进化上保守的微生物表面病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pattern, PAMP),可以被模式识别蛋白(pattern recognition proteins, PRRs)如肽聚糖识别蛋白(peptidoglycan recognition proteins, PGRPs)识别。 在昆虫的天生免疫系统中,有些PGRPs能够利用细菌独有的肽聚糖识别入侵细菌,并将细菌入侵信号传递给下游的抗菌肽(antimicrobial peptide, AMP)合成途径,启动抗菌肽基因的转录及合成;PGRPs对肽聚糖的识别也会启动酚氧化酶原途径的激活,引起黑化反应。有些具有酰胺酶活性的PGRPs可以促进吞噬作用;有些可以抑制抗菌肽合成以减弱过度免疫反应带来的损伤。还有一些PGRPs作为效应因子直接作用于细菌将细菌杀死。本文主要从昆虫PGRPs作为识别受体(recognition receptor)、调节子(regulator)和效应因子(effector) 3个方面进行了综述,并分析了目前PGRPs研究中仍不清楚的问题和未来研究的方向。     

林可霉素生物合成及其分子调控研究进展

林可霉素(lincomycin)是由林可链霉菌(Streptomyces lincolnensis)产生的酰胺类抗生素,在临床上主要用于治疗革兰氏阳性菌引起的感染。鉴于其具有高药用价值和经济价值,林可霉素生物合成和分子调控备受关注,并取得了较好的研究进展。本文综述了林可霉素的特征结构和生物合成,并重点介绍了林可链霉菌中林可霉素的分子调控机制等方面的研究进展,有利于深入认识林可链霉菌次级代谢调控网络,为在林可霉素高产菌中改造调控因子或其靶点元件提高产量提供理论指导。     

双歧杆菌的完整肽聚糖对实验性大肠癌诱导型一氧化氮合酶表达的影响

建立大肠癌裸鼠移植瘤模型,以免疫组化法观察大肠癌移植瘤一氧化氮合酶（iNOS）基因的蛋白表达水平,结果显示完整肽聚糖（Whole peptidoglycan,WPG）注射组大肠癌移植瘤iNOS蛋白的表达率、表达强度以及阳性细胞密度均明显高于肿瘤对照组（P＜0.01）,提示分叉双歧杆菌的WPG能增强大肠癌移植瘤细胞iNOS基因的蛋白表达,这可能是其抑瘤机制之一。     

木质素的生物合成及其调控研究进展

木质素是植物体中仅次于纤维素的一种重要大分子有机物质,具有重要生物学功能,其3种主要单体的生物合成途径已经基本清楚。从木质素生物合成及基因工程在调控木质素生物合成中的作用等方面的研究进展进行了综述,并提出了存在的问题及对策。     

多不饱和脂肪酸调控基因表达的分子机制的研究进展

多不饱和脂肪酸（PUFA）,尤其是n-3系的PUFA,可以降低脂肪酸以甘油三酯形式的沉积,同时促进脂肪酸氧化和葡萄糖合成糖原。其具体机制是PUFA通过激活过氧化物酶体活化增生因子受体α（PPARα）来控制氧化途径过程中的基因表达,而其对脂肪合成途径中有关基因的抑制则是通过降低能传递胰岛素和碳水化合物信息的转录因子与DNA的亲和力和转录因子的核内丰度。尤其是PUFA抑制了类固醇空单元结合蛋白－1（SREBP－1）的核内丰度和表达,降低了核因子Y(NF-Y)、Sp1和肝核因子－4（MNF－4）与DNA的亲和力。     

黄曲霉毒素生物合成的遗传调控研究进展

黄曲霉毒素是一类具有较强毒性和致癌力的次级代谢产物,在小麦、水稻、玉米和花生等多种粮食、油料、饲料和食品中检出率均比较高。因此,黄曲霉毒素不仅给人和动物的健康造成极其严重的威胁,而且也给食品和饲料等行业造成了巨大的经济损失。黄曲霉毒素主要由黄曲霉和寄生曲霉产生。自上个世纪60年代首次发现黄曲霉毒素以来,研究者在黄曲霉毒素合成途径、降解、合成机制和致病机理等方面做了大量研究。本文主要综述近年来国内外以黄曲霉为对象的黄曲霉毒素合成的遗传调控机制研究进展。从转录调控、蛋白翻译后修饰、信号转导途径、参与生长发育和形态建成的蛋白和其他酶等方面对黄曲霉毒素合成机制展开综述,为今后进一步深入系统研究黄曲霉毒素合成机制奠定基础,同时为制定防治黄曲霉及其毒素的策略提供理论基础。     

纳他霉素生物合成和调控机制的相关研究进展

纳他霉素是一种对真菌具有广谱抗菌活性的多烯大环内酯类抗生素,它不仅能有效地抑制真菌的生长和繁殖,而且能够抑制一些真菌毒素的形成,已被大多数国家批准为抗真菌食品防腐剂使用,也被广泛应用于农业和医疗领域.纳塔尔链霉菌Streptomyces natalensis和恰努塔加链霉菌Streptomyces chatanooge...     

Activities and regulation of peptidoglycan synthases

Peptidoglycan (PG) is an essential component in the cell wall of nearly all bacteria, forming a continuous, mesh-like structure, called the sacculus, around the cytoplasmic membrane to protect the cell from bursting by its turgor. Although PG synthases, the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), have been studied for 70 years, useful in vitro assays for measuring their activities were established only recently, and these provided the first insights into the regulation of these enzymes. Here, we review the current knowledge on the glycosyltransferase and transpeptidase activities of PG synthases. We provide new data showing that the bifunctional PBP1A and PBP1B from Escherichia coli are active upon reconstitution into the membrane environment of proteoliposomes, and that these enzymes also exhibit DD-carboxypeptidase activity in certain conditions. Both novel features are relevant for their functioning within the cell. We also review recent data on the impact of protein–protein interactions and other factors on the activities of PBPs. As an example, we demonstrate a synergistic effect of multiple protein–protein interactions on the glycosyltransferase activity of PBP1B, by its cognate lipoprotein activator LpoB and the essential cell division protein FtsN.     

Crystal structure of penicillin-binding protein 1a (PBP1a) reveals a mutational hotspot implicated in beta-lactam resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major human pathogen whose infections have been treated with beta-lactam antibiotics for over 60 years, but the proliferation of strains that are highly resistant to such drugs is a problem of worldwide concern. Beta-lactams target penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), membrane-associated enzymes that play essential roles in the peptidoglycan biosynthetic process. Bifunctional PBPs catalyze both the polymerization of glycan chains (glycosyltransfer) and the cross-linking of adjacent pentapeptides (transpeptidation), while monofunctional enzymes catalyze only the latter reaction. Although S. pneumoniae has six PBPs, only three (PBP1a, PBP2x, PBP2b) are major resistance determinants, with PBP1a being the only bifunctional enzyme. PBP1a plays a key role in septum formation during the cell division cycle and its modification is essential for the development of high-level resistance to penicillins and cephalosporins. The crystal structure of a soluble form of pneumococcal PBP1a (PBP1a*) has been solved to 2.6A and reveals that it folds into three domains. The N terminus contains a peptide from the glycosyltransfer domain bound to an interdomain linker region, followed by a central, transpeptidase domain, and a small C-terminal unit. An analysis of PBP1a sequences from drug-resistant clinical strains in light of the structure reveals the existence of a mutational hotspot at the entrance of the catalytic cleft that leads to the modification of the polarity and accessibility of the mutated PBP1a active site. The presence of this hotspot in all variants sequenced to date is of key relevance for the development of novel antibiotherapies for the treatment of beta-lactam-resistant pneumococcal strains.     

The different shapes of cocci

The shape of bacteria is determined by their cell wall and can be very diverse. Even among genera with the suffix 'cocci', which are the focus of this review, different shapes exist. While staphylococci or Neisseria cells, for example, are truly round-shaped, streptococci, lactococci or enterococci have an ovoid shape. Interestingly, there seems to be a correlation between the shape of an organism and its set of penicillin-binding proteins--the enzymes that assemble the peptidoglycan, the main constituent of the cell wall. While only one peptidoglycan biosynthesis machinery seems to exist in staphylococci, two of these machineries are proposed to function in ovoid-shaped bacteria, reinforcing the intrinsic differences regarding the morphogenesis of different classes of cocci. The present review aims to integrate older ultra-structural data with recent localization studies, in order to clarify the relation between the mechanisms of cell wall synthesis and the determination of cell shape in various cocci.     

Peptidoglycan structure and architecture

The peptidoglycan (murein) sacculus is a unique and essential structural element in the cell wall of most bacteria. Made of glycan strands cross-linked by short peptides, the sacculus forms a closed, bag-shaped structure surrounding the cytoplasmic membrane. There is a high diversity in the composition and sequence of the peptides in the peptidoglycan from different species. Furthermore, in several species examined, the fine structure of the peptidoglycan significantly varies with the growth conditions. Limited number of biophysical data on the thickness, elasticity and porosity of peptidoglycan are available. The different models for the architecture of peptidoglycan are discussed with respect to structural and physical parameters.     

Role of a serine-type d-alanyl-d-alanine carboxypeptidase on the survival of Ochrobactrum sp. 11a under ionic and hyperosmotic stress

The plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium, Ochrobactrum sp. 11a displays a high intrinsic salinity tolerance and has been used in this work to study the molecular basis of bacterial responses to high concentrations of NaCl. A collection of Ochrobactrum sp. 11a mutants was generated by Tn 5 -B21 mutagenesis and screened for sensitivity to salinity. One clone, designated PBP and unable to grow on glutamate mannitol salt agar medium supplemented with 300 mM NaCl was selected and further characterized. The PBP mutant carries a single transposon insertion in a gene showing a high degree of identity to the serine-type d -alanyl- d -alanine carboxypeptidase gene of Ochrobactrum anthropi . Interestingly, the expression of this gene was shown to be upregulated by salt in the PBP mutant. Moreover, evidence is presented for the requirement of the gene product for adaptation to high-salt conditions as well as to overcome the toxicity of LiCl, KCl, sucrose, polyethylene glycol (PEG), AlCl₃, CuSO₄, and ZnSO₄. In addition to the altered tolerance to both ionic and osmotic stresses, the PBP mutant exhibited changes in colony and cell morphology, exopolysaccharide production, and an increased sensitivity to detergents.     

Bactofilins,a ubiquitous class of cytoskeletal proteins mediating polar localization of a cell wall synthase in Caulobacter crescentus

The cytoskeleton has a key function in the temporal and spatial organization of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Here, we report the identification of a new class of polymer-forming proteins, termed bactofilins, that are widely conserved among bacteria. In Caulobacter crescentus, two bactofilin paralogues cooperate to form a sheet-like structure lining the cytoplasmic membrane in proximity of the stalked cell pole. These assemblies mediate polar localization of a peptidoglycan synthase involved in stalk morphogenesis, thus complementing the function of the actin-like cytoskeleton and the cell division machinery in the regulation of cell wall biogenesis. In other bacteria, bactofilins can establish rod-shaped filaments or associate with the cell division apparatus, indicating considerable structural and functional flexibility. Bactofilins polymerize spontaneously in the absence of additional cofactors in vitro, forming stable ribbon- or rod-like filament bundles. Our results suggest that these structures have evolved as an alternative to intermediate filaments, serving as versatile molecular scaffolds in a variety of cellular pathways.