ZmXTH1, a new xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase in maize, affects cell wall structure and composition in Arabidopsis thaliana

Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs; EC 2.4.1.207and/or EC 3.2.1.15 [EC] 1) are enzymes involved in the modificationof cell wall structure by cleaving and, often, also re-joiningxyloglucan molecules in primary plant cell walls. Using a poolof antibodies raised against an enriched cell wall protein fraction,a new XTH cDNA in maize, ZmXTH1, has been isolated from a cDNAexpression library obtained from the elongation zone of themaize root. The predicted protein has a putative N-terminalsignal peptide and possesses the typical domains of this enzymefamily, such as a catalytic domain that is homologous to thatof Bacillus macerans β-glucanase, a putative N-glycosylationmotif, and four cysteine residues in the central and C terminalregions of the ZmXTH1 protein. Phylogenetic analysis of ZmXTH1reveals that it belongs to subgroup 4, so far only reportedfrom Poaceae monocot species. ZmXTH1 has been expressed in Pichiapastoris (a methylotrophic yeast) and the recombinant enzymeshowed xyloglucan endotransglucosylase but not xyloglucan endohydrolaseactivity, representing the first enzyme belonging to subgroup4 characterized in maize so far. Expression data indicate thatZmXTH1 is expressed in elongating tissues, modulated by cultureconditions, and induced by gibberellins. Transient expressionassays in onion cells reveal that ZmXTH1 is directed to thecell wall, although weakly bound. Finally, Arabidopsis thalianaplants expressing ZmXTH1 show slightly increased xyloglucanendohydrolase activity and alterations in the cell wall structureand composition. Key words: Cell elongation, cell wall, plant transformation, XEH, XET, XTH, Zea mays     

FOOD PREFERENCES AND DIETARY OVERLAP BY TERRESTRIAL SNAILS IN LOGOS AREA (EDESSA, MACEDONIA, NORTHERN GREECE)

Among the five coexisting species of snail in Edessa (N. Greece),Bradybaena fruticum and Helix lucorum dominated in density andbiomass in comparison with Xeropicta arenosa, Monacha cartusianaand Cepaea vindobonensis. Resting places of each species inrelation to plant cover and diet preferences are examined seasonallyand throughout a year. Discriminant analysis for the annualdata showed that 83% of the snail group species could be differentiatedby the plants on which they were attached. Each snail specieswas usually found sitting on one of the most abundant plants.Cepaea preferred to sit on and eat senescent material even inspring time and Bradybaena green material. In spring, the snailsdid not consume plant material in proportion to the occurrenceof those plants but they usually did so in summer and in autumn.Hedera helix was not consumed even when it was abundant. Inspring and autumn the snails had consumed plants to which theywere found attached, but in summer they did not. (Received 9 August 1993; accepted 14 February 1994)     

Reproductive Allometry in Soybean, Maize and Sunflower

We compared the relationship between grain yield per plant (Y_P)and shoot biomass per plant (S_P) in three annual crops withcontrasting reproductive strategies: sunflower, a determinatespecies with a single inflorescence; maize, a determinate specieswith a limited capacity to adjust the number of ears in responseto resource availability; and indeterminate soybean, a specieswith a large capacity to adjust the number of inflorescences.Our working hypotheses were: H₁—the relationship betweenY_PandS_P is linear; H₂—the intercept of the model is zero,i.e. there is not a threshold plant mass for reproduction. Awide range of Y_Pand S_Pwas generated by manipulation of plantdensity;S_Pvaried between 0.3 and 196 g per plant in soybean,between 6 and 873 g per plant in sunflower and between 23 and697 g per plant in maize. Within these broad ranges of plantsize, both hypotheses were rejected in five out of six experiments,i.e. the relationship between Y_Pand S_Pdeparted from linearityand there was a threshold for S_Pbelow which no grain set occurred.TheS_P threshold for grain set varied widely among species; itwas close to 2 g per plant for soybean, 27 g per plant for sunflowerand 43–71 g per plant for maize. Because of this sizethreshold and non-linearity, harvest index (HI = Y_PS_P^-1) wasstable for mid-size plants, diminished slightly for large plants,and diminished sharply for smaller plants in all three crops.Harvest index stability was highest in soybean, intermediatein sunflower and lowest in maize. Differential stability ofreproductive partitioning partially derived from contrastingpatterns of meristem allocation. Copyright 2000 Annals of BotanyCompany Helianthus annuus L., Zea mays L., Glycine max(L.) Merrill, grain yield, harvest index, plant density, reproductive allocation, meristem allocation, plasticity     

The Influence of Foliar Applications of Urea on the Nodulation Pattern of Certain Leguminous Species

In greenhouse experiments with seven species of legumes, thespraying of urea on to the leaves was shown to affect nodulationadversely, without impairing the growth of the plants. In Phaseolusvulgaris, Vicia sativa, and Pisum sativum three-times-weeklysprays of 1 per cent. aqueous urea either prevented or markedlyreduced nodule development during the 8-week experimental period.In Medicago sativa and Trifolium pratense the urea treatmentresulted in a delay in nodulation so that numbers of nodulesat the first sampling (4 weeks) were reduced, while numbersat later samplings were higher since nodulation had been delayeduntil the root system was larger and provided a greater numberof potential nodule sites. In Trifolium hybridum and T. repensthe urea-treated plants showed reduced nodulation throughoutthe 6-week experimental period. In these experiments the advance effects on nodulation cannotbe due to high concentration of combined nitrogen in the rootingmedium, but it is suggested they derive from a high level ofnitrogen within the plant.     

A New Model Relating Crop Yield and Plant Arrangement

A new model is proposed which relates the weight of plants totheir spatial arrangement. The weight of each plant is calculatedas the integral of the function f(r) = L(cr² + 1)^–2 overan area allocated to it, r being distance from the plant, withL and c parameters to be specified. The model is thus concise,general, in that it can be used to describe the effects of anyspatial arrangement on plant weight, and the parameters L andc have a biological interpretation. It is also consistent withthe commonly-used relationship between plant weight (w) anddensity (p), w^–1 = a+bp. We show for carrots (Daucus carota L.) and red beet (Beta vulgarisL.), that the mean weights fitted by the model agree as wellwith the experimentally observed mean plot weight as those fittedby more complex models with more parameters, some of which arenot as general. We show also that the parameter c can be predictedfrom the time from sowing to harvest, with good results whentested on sets of data independent of those to which the modelhad been fitted. The assumptions on which the model is based,its application, and extensions to it are discussed. Crop yield, plant density, plant arrangement, carrot, Daucus carota L., red beet, Beta vulgaris L., soya bean, Glycine max L., mathematical model     

The Role of Farnesol as a Regulator of Stomatal Opening in Sorghum

Fine, very dilute aqueous emulsions of all-trans farnesol appliedto intact leaves of Sorghum bicolor caused appreciable inhibitionof stomatal opening which persisted for 2 d, after which timethe stomata regained their capacity to open. The inhibitoryeffect of farnesol was not overcome by flushing the leaves withCO₂-free air, indicating that it was not the result of an accumulationof CO₂. This conclusion was supported by measurements of CO₂compensation, which increased only slightly after farnesol treatment. All-trans farnesol has previously been reported to be formedin water-stressed plants of Sorghum. The data presented heresuggest that it could be acting as an endogenous antitranspirant,in a comparable role to that already established for abscisicacid in several species. It would appear, however, to have aless prolonged inhibitory effect than abscisic acid, and itcould be responsible for the rapid responses of Sorghum stomatato water stress and their quick recovery after the plant hasregained turgor, a characteristic which distinguishes Sorghumfrom many other genera so far investigated.     

大豆蚜嗅觉在选择寄主植物中的作用

大豆蚜 Aphis hlycines 有翅和无翅孤雌生殖蚜为其寄主植物大豆叶和鼠李叶气味所引诱,而非寄主植物棉花叶和黄瓜叶气味处于中性,丝瓜叶和南瓜叶气味具有明显的排斥作用。非寄主植物气味可以遮蔽寄主植物气味的引诱作用。大豆蚜触角感受器对植物气味具有嗅觉生理反应,对一些化合物的最小感觉阈值达10-5至10-6体积比浓度,表明大豆蚜触角上存在识别植物气味的嗅觉受体细胞。由此证明,嗅觉在大豆蚜选择寄主植物过程中起重要作用。     

Estimating the Effects of Varying Temperature on the Rate of Development of Plants

Experiments on the effects of temperature on plant developmentusually yield measurements of the times at which recognizablestages of development are reached, and a record of the varyingtemperature patterns during development. Two complementary methodsfor analyzing such data to reveal the underlying relationshipsbetween rate of development and temperature are discussed. Inboth methods it is assumed that there exists a unique relationshipbetween current rate of plant development and current temperature. In the ‘discrete-rate’ method, the rate of developmentfunction, r(T), is approximated by a set of discrete valuesr₁, r₂...r_i...r_n, each applicable over a given temperature range.The fractional state of development of a plant, S, is writtenas the sum of the products of these rates, r_i, times the fractionof total time during development that temperature was withineach range, f_i, i.e. S = r_i. Systems of such equations can besolved for the r_i, values, and this enables an assessment ofthe rate-temperature relationship without preconceived notionson the form of the plant response. This assessment can then be used as a basis for selecting asuitable interpolation function to be fitted to the data usingthe ‘rate-function’ method. Here a mathematicalform for the function r(T) is selected at the outset. The temperaturescale is divided into discrete intervals and a set of equations,similar to the above, is developed. These equations are solvedfor best values of the parameters of the r(T) function. These methods are illustrated by application to controlled-environmentdata on times from sowing to flowering in soybeans and pigeonpeas,and on rates of leaf appearance in maize. Advantages claimed for the two methods are that they providea systematic approach for relating development to plant temperatureand that they are based upon an explicit physiological hypothesis. Phenology, Zea mays, Cajanus cajan, Glycine max     

Late Transplanting and the Yield of Phaseolus vulgaris L.

The prediction that very high seed yields of dry beans (Phaseolusvulgaris L.) would be produced by the delayed transplantingof large plants has been tested in a factorial experiment withfour dates of transplanting and eight plant populations. Therewere significant differences in yield between transplantingdates and between population densities, and there was a significantdate-density interaction. At low plant densities (up to about30 plants m^–2) the three transplanted treatments yieldedless than the hand-sown controls, and late transplanting yieldedless than early. At the highest density the situation was reversed;all three transplanted treatments out-yielded the controls andlate transplanting tended to out-yield plants transplanted early.The biggest yield was 340 g seed m^–2 from a transplantedcrop grown at 35 plants m^–2. The data on yield fitted a modified rectangular hyperbola ofthe form where y is yield per unit area, p is the number of plants perunit area, t is the number of days between sowing and transplanting,and B_o, n, m, and p are arbitrary parameters. This equationaccounted for 91 per cent of the variation in yield with t andp. It is suggested that late transplanting had adverse effects,due to transplanting ‘shock’ and which were mostmarked at low plant densities; and beneficial effects, ascribableto an effect on plant ‘plasticity’, which were mostmarked at high plant densities. Possible physiological mechanismsof these effects are discussed. Phaseolus vulgaris, yield, density, transplanting     

Growth of Individuals in Plant Populations

Relationships between individual plant weight and net photosynthesisper day (G(t, x) function of plant weight) in plant populationsof various stand structures were simulated based on a canopyphotosynthesis model. The G(t, x) functions of plant weightare determined mainly by LAI (leaf area index), the relationshipbetween individual plant weight and leaf area, canopy structureand extinction coefficient. The concave relationship betweenindividual plant weight and leaf area at small LAI (<2),at small extinction coefficient (< 0.5), or at the canopystructure having the maximum leaf area density at the bottomproduces a concave G(t, x) function, which generates negativeskewness of plant weight. The linear relationship between individualplant weight and leaf area at large LAI (> 2) produces aconvex G(t, x) function, which generates positive skewness ofplant weight. These simulation results coincide with G(t, x)functions obtained experimentally and with the well-known phenomenonof stand dynamics in which skewness of plant weight becomesnegative in the early growth stage and then increases to a positivevalue as a stand grows and becomes crowded. Helianthus annuus L., individual plant size, mean growth rate, canopy photosynthesis model, skewness, stand structure     

Effect of Verticillium dahliae on Photosynthesis, Leaf Expansion and Senescence of Field-grown Sunflower

On the basis of known sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) responsesto soil water deficit, it is proposed that the effect of thefungus Verticillium dahliae Klebahn on plant leaf area precedesand is greater than its effect on leaf photosynthesis and stomatalconductance. To test this hypothesis, we measured shoot andleaf area growth, leaf photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductanceand disease symptoms in a field experiment including hybridsof high (Sankol) and low (Dekasol 3900) susceptibility to V.dahliae. Plants inoculated with V. dahliae and controls werecompared. We also investigated the effect of V. dahliae on keycomponents of plant leaf area, leaf expansion and senescence,in inoculated and control plants of Sankol and Toba, a hybridof intermediate susceptibility to V. dahliae. Reduction in plantleaf area caused by V. dahliae was first detected 31 d afterinoculation (DAI), when visual symptoms of disease in inoculatedplants were slight (Sankol) or absent (Dekasol 3900). Reductionin leaf photosynthesis was first observed 66 DAI; stomatal conductanceand leaf dark respiration were both unaffected by V. dahliaeduring the whole experiment. In comparison with controls, V.dahliae reduced seasonal duration of plant leaf area by 25%in Dekalb 3900 and by 55% in Sankol, whereas the average reductionin leaf photosynthetic rate was 9%. In correspondence with thereduction in leaf area duration, inoculation reduced shoot drymatter of mature Sankol by 50%. In both experiments, less leafexpansion accounted for most of the early reduction in plantleaf area; as the disease progressed, increasing senescencealso contributed to reduced plant leaf area. It is concludedthat the response of sunflower to V. dahliae resembled the responseof the plant to soil water deficit: (1) plant leaf area, ratherthan leaf photosynthetic rate, accounted for the reduction ingrowth in mass; and (2) reduced leaf expansion early in theseason and faster leaf senescence in older plants accountedfor the decrease in plant leaf area. Copyright 2000 Annals ofBotany Company Helianthus annuus, Verticillium dahliae, allometry, apical dominance, drought, leaf expansion, leaf senescence, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, growth     

A Model for Plant and Crop Growth, Allowing for Competition for Light by the use of Potential and Restricted Projected Crown Zone Areas

Relations for competition for light are developed and used ina plant growth model applicable to the isolated plant, to plantsin even-aged monoculture and to plants in mixed-aged monoculture.In an isolated plant, it is assumed that a leaf area, proportionalto the plant mass, is contained within a crown whose projectedzone area is proportional to plant mass to the 2/3 power. Self-shadingprogressively reduces the specific growth rate. If light werethe sole limiting resource and were constant, one can derivea growth equation, dw/dt = rw[1 - exp (-KW^1/3)]KW^1/3, which,integrated, gives w^1/3 = K^-1 ln {1 + [exp (KW^1/3₀)-1] exp (rt/3)}.It approximates, initially, to a particular case of the Richards(1959) empirical growth equation. In even-aged evenly-spaced monocrops competing only for light,it is assumed that the zone areas merge at canopy closure, andgrowth then follows the expolinear equation of Goudriaan andMonteith (1990), giving a continuous function based on groundcover. For mixed-aged monocrops, we assume a phase of canopyclosure that affects the younger plants earlier than the olderones. Under varying environmental conditions in the field, plant growthmay be affected by other factors in addition, e.g. temperature.In the growth conductance model of Aikman and Scaife (1993),the shading expressions are applied to the light-dependence. Data from two sowings of cabbage and carrot in even-aged andmixed-aged monocrops were used to test the model. The parametervalues derived from the even-aged monocultures predict the growthrates in the mixed-aged monocultures better than models whichassume uniform canopies.Copyright 1994, 1999 Academic Press Growth, model, monocrop, even-aged, mixed-aged, PAR, density, competition, light, shading, zone area, ground cover, temperature, carbon dioxide, expolinear, carrot, Daucus carota L., cabbage, Brassica oleracea L     

RMA1 an Arabidopsis thaliana Gene Whose cDNA Suppresses the Yeast secl5 Mutation, Encodes a Novel Protein with a RING Finger Motif and a Membrane Anchor

To identify molecules that function in the plant secretory pathway,we screened for Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA clones that complementthe temperature-sensitive (ts), secretion-deficient sec15 mutationof yeast Saccha-romyces cerevisiae. RMA1, one of the genes obtainedin this screening, suppressed not only the ts growth of sec15but also its secretory defect. RMA1 is not a structural homologueof SEC15 but encodes a novel 28 kDa protein with a RING fingermotif and a C-terminal membrane-anchoring domain. Mutationalanalysis indicates that the RING finger motif of RMA1 is importantfor its suppression activity. In Arabidopsis plant, RMA1 isubiquitously expressed. A search for homologous proteins inthe database revealed that Arabidopsis, nematode, mouse andhuman possess close homologues of RMA1. (Received January 5, 1998; Accepted March 9, 1998)     

Validation of the Principal Axis Model (PAM) and its Application to Genotype Selection in Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Crops

The principal axis model (PAM) uses a principal axis and anellipse to characterize the variation in the relationship betweenthe seed (SWT) and plant (PWT) weights of individual plantswithin a crop. The theoretical linkage between the magnitudeand variability of plant harvest index (PHI), and thereforeseed yield per unit area, and changes in the components of thePAM was examined using data from four field pea (Pisum sativumL.) genotypes sown at 9, 49, 100, 225 and 400 plants m^-2. Astrong linear relationship (R ²>93.8%) between SWT and PWTand a negative SWT-axis intercept were confirmed for all crops.Analyses indicated that decreased variability of PHI withina crop would result from selection to: (a ) increase the SWT-axisintercept of the PAM; (b ) increase the slope of the PAM; (c) optimize the ellipse location; and (d ) minimize the deviationaround the principal axis. The first three methods were usedto explain yield differences (P <0.05) among genotypes ofdifferent populations. A potential strategy for single plant selection based on thePAM is proposed. This may enable early generation (F₄) selectionof small, high performing plants that may be ideal crop ideotypes.A theoretical example of the strategy is presented, with differencesamong selections based on the PAM, SWT or harvest index highlighted. Field pea(Pisum sativum L.); genetic harvest index; minimum plant weight; plant harvest index; principal axis model; plant population; seed weight; selection criteria     

The Dielectric Relaxation of Water in Plant Tissue

Thermally stimulated depolarization current (TSDC) measurementson plant leaves and stems of six different species in the temperaturerange of 77–300 K revealed the existence of three differentdispersions. The first dispersion at low temperatures, whichis attributed to the relaxation of loosely bound water moleculeswas studied in detail in an attempt to obtain information onthe possible structures of water in plant tissue. Its characteristicsdiffer for various plant tissues, indicating a different organizationof water in those plant tissues. The dispersion can be describedby a continuous distribution of relaxation times t with boththe activation energy W and the pre-exponential factor To inthe Arrhenius equation being distributed parameters. The spectrumof W and T_o was determined for E. globulus and O. europaea leafsamples. The mean values of T and W are larger and that of T_osmaller than the corresponding values for free (bulk) water.The results favour a model of the organization of water in clustersrather than in multilayers and indicate a stronger binding ofwater in living systems. Key words: Dielectric relaxation, distribution of relaxation times, free and bound water     

褐飞虱侵害对不同抗性水平水稻根部吸收氮、磷、钾的影响

为了解褐飞虱Nilaparvata lugens侵害后水稻抗性水平与根系吸收氮（N）、磷（P）、钾（K）的关系,对不同抗性水平的水稻受褐飞虱侵害后的平均受害水平、植株功能损失指数及水稻吸收水培液营养元素N,P,K情况进行了研究。结果表明：不同水稻品种（TN1、协优63、协优963和超级培矮64S/E32）接种褐飞虱后,TN1受害最严重,协优63和超级培矮64S/E32 次之;受害最轻的是协优963,30头/株侵害后植株功能损失指数仅为0.661。40,60和80头/株侵害水稻后根系对K吸收下降程度最显著,其次为P,最后为N;且随褐飞虱侵害时间的延长（6 d, 9 d）影响愈显著。60头/株侵害TN1、协优63、协优963和超级培矮64S/E32后9 d,根系对K吸收下降率分别为164.11%,74.61%,55.16%和46.60%。由此可见,随水稻品种抗性水平的下降,接种褐飞虱后,水稻根部对水培液营养元素吸收下降程度愈显著。本研究结果可对深入阐明不同抗性水平水稻抗（耐）虫机制与根系吸收能力关系提供参考。     

Flower constancy in the hoverflies Episyrphus balteatus (Degeer) and Syrphus ribesii (L.) (Syrphidae)

The causes and consequences of flower constancy have been thefocus of many studies, but almost all have examined the foragingbehavior of bumblebees, honeybees, or butterflies. We test whetherconstancy occurs in an overlooked group of pollinators, thesyrphid flies. Foraging sequences of wild flies of two species,Episyrphus balteatus and Syrphus ribesii were examined whenvisiting flowers in seminatural plant communities and in artificialarrays of two color morphs of Lobularia maritima planted ata range of frequencies. Both species exhibited marked floralconstancy when foraging in the mixed-plant community. Becauseall groups of pollinating insect so far examined exhibit constancyat least under some circumstances, we suggest that this is thepredominant strategy used by pollinators and that there is probablya common explanation. Neither syrphid species exhibited constancyto different color morphs within a plant species, in contrastto previously published studies of Hymenoptera foraging amongpolymorphic flowers, which all describe positive frequency-dependentselection. Possible explanations for this discrepancy are discussed.We argue that constancy in these syrphids is unlikely to resultfrom learning constraints on handling ability, currently themost widely accepted explanation for flower constancy, becausethey forage primarily for pollen which is easily located inmostflowers they visit.     

Whole Plant Carbon Gain of an Endangered Herbaceous Species Aster kantoensis and the Influence of Shading by an Alien Grass Eragrostis curvula in its Gravelly Floodplain Habitat

Aster kantoensis, an endangered plant species, is endemic togravelly floodplains of a few large rivers in central Japan.In recent years, competitive exclusion by alien perennial grassesin its natural habitat has been suspected to be one of the majorfactors threatening this species. In the River Kinu, increasedshading by the perennial alien grass Eragrostis curvula reduceslight availability for A. kantoensis. To reveal the influenceof shading on the establishment and growth of A. kantoensisrosettes, the potential carbon gain of A. kantoensis in itsnatural habitat was estimated using microenvironmental dataand whole plant photosynthetic and respiratory responses tolight and temperature. Whole plant CO₂exchange responses weremeasured with a specifically designed ‘double chamber’,which enabled measurement of the CO₂gas exchange rates of thefoliage (F) and the culm (C; stem and roots) separately. Itwas demonstrated that in a plant with average C/F ratio, positivecarbon gain could be maintained only in the microsites wherethe relative PPFD (photosynthetically active photon flux density)was above 15 or 30% of unshaded conditions in early- or mid-summer,respectively. Increasing C/F ratio, caused by an increase inroot biomass as an adaptive response to drought, resulted ina large reduction in the carbon gain irrespective of microsite,weather and season. The high light requirement of A. kantoensisis interpreted as a cost of the morphological responses necessaryto avoid stresses characteristic of this gravelly floodplainhabitat. Copyright 2000 Annals of Botany Company Aster kantoensis Kitam., Eragrostis curvula Nees, biomass distribution, carbon gain, gravelly floodplain, respiration, shading, whole plant photosynthesis     

The Hybrid Origin of Emilia praetermissa (Senecioneae: Compositae)

Interspecific hybrids were obtained between Emilia coccinea(n = 5) and E. sonchifolia (n = 5). Except for quantitativecharacters such as plant size, head size, and leaf size, thediploid hybrid was similar to E. praetermissa (n = 10). Artificial polyploidization of the diploid hybrid resulted inan allotetraploid which is morphologically indistinguishablefrom E. praetermissa. The artificial tetraploid hybrid and E.praetermissa are also similar with respect to their karyotypesand their meiotic behaviours. Morphological and cytogenetic evidence suggest that E. praetermissaoriginated from a plant which is of hybrid origin and whichis similar to the synthetic tetraploid.