Covariation of stream community structure and biomass of algae, invertebrates and fish with forest cover at multiple spatial scales

1. To evaluate the spatial extent of the effects of forest cover on stream ecosystems, we measured algae, invertebrate, and fish biomass and invertebrate and fish community structure in 38 small first- to third-order streams in the National Capital Region of Canada along with forest cover at different spatial scales.
2. We considered 55 spatial scales of forest cover including several buffer widths (doubling 10–320 m) and lengths (doubling 10–1280 m, entire riparian distance upstream from sampling area) and entire catchments to determine which spatial scale maximized the correlation with biomass and metrics of community structure.
3. The proportion of variability in biomass and structural metrics explained by forest cover generally increased with increasing scale, suggesting that catchment-wide disturbances are the most influential determinants of benthic and fish communities.
4. Catchment forest cover explained more variation in algal (adjusted r ²   =   0.54), invertebrate (adjusted r ²   =   0.51) and fish (adjusted r ²   =   0.33) biomass than structural metrics of invertebrates and fish (adjusted r ²   =   0.08–0.27).
5. Analyses of the partial effects of forest cover at three scales (reach, riparian and the entire catchment) on biomass and community structure metrics identified catchment and reach scales as being most influential and never detected a significant partial effect of forest cover at the riparian scale.
6. These results suggest that maintenance or protection of reach and riparian buffers alone will not sufficiently protect stream function and structure from catchment-wide impacts.     

Habitat scale and biodiversity: influence of catchment, stream reach and bedform scales on local invertebrate diversity

Although many studies have investigated the influence of environmental patterns on local stream invertebrate diversity, there has been little consistency in reported relationships between diversity and particular environmental variables. Here we test the hypothesis that local stream invertebrate diversity is determined by a combination of factors occurring at multiple spatial scales. We developed predictive models relating invertebrate diversity (species richness and equitability) to environmental variables collected at various spatial scales (bedform, reach and catchment, respectively) using data from 97 sampling sites dispersed throughout the Taieri River drainage in New Zealand. Models based on an individual scale of perception (bedform, reach or catchment) were not able to match predictions to observations (r < 0.26, P > 0.01, between observed and predicted equitability and species richness). In contrast, models incorporating all three scales simultaneously were highly significant (P < 0.01; r = 0.55 and 0.64, between observed and predicted equitability and species richness, respectively). The most influential variables for both richness and equitability were median particle size at the bedform scale, adjacent land use at the reach scale, and relief ratio at the catchment scale. Our findings suggest that patterns observed in local assemblages are not determined solely by local mechanisms acting within assemblages, but also result from processes operating at larger spatial scales. The integration of different spatial scales may be the key to increasing model predictability and our understanding of the factors that determine local biodiversity.     

Are distribution patterns linked to dispersal mechanism? An investigation using pond invertebrate assemblages

1. Dispersal ability influences the distribution and abundance of organisms, but empirical investigations of the relationship between dispersal ability and the composition of ecological assemblages are scarce. Here, we compare between-site variation in the species richness and community composition of actively and passively dispersing pond invertebrates.
2. Coleoptera (active dispersers) and microcrustacea (passive dispersers) were sampled over a season from 16 ponds within a 4-km radius in south-west England. Species richness and community composition were related to environmental variables using regression and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), respectively.
3. Coleopteran species richness was significantly and positively correlated with pond permanence and maximum area, whereas microcrustacean species richness was relatively equal across sites and did not correlate with environmental variables. The frequency of species' occurrence between sites was the same for both groups, which suggests that active and passive dispersers exhibited the same degree of dispersal.
4. Between-site variation in community composition was non-random for both groups, with pond permanence and area, together, explaining similar proportions of between-site variation for Coleoptera. Permanence was correlated most strongly with microcrustacean community composition and a high proportion (25%) of microcrustacean species were more numerous in smaller, more ephemeral ponds.
5. These data suggest that, at small spatial scales, Coleoptera which can undertake multiple dispersal events, are more likely to colonise large, more permanent ponds than passively dispersing microcrustacea. For microcrustacea, other traits (in this case those permitting existence in ephemeral habitats) may over-ride the influences of dispersal in driving between-site variation in species composition.     

Local and regional determinants of stream fish assemblage structure: inferences based on taxonomic vs. functional groups

Aim  To examine the roles of local and regional environmental variables and biotic interactions in determining the structure of local stream fish assemblages, and to compare results derived from analyses based on taxonomic and functional groups.
Location  Texas, USA.
Methods  Species abundance data were compiled for 157 stream fish assemblages in several river basins across Texas. Species were condensed into functional groups based on trophic and life-history characteristics. Local and regional environmental variables were either measured at each location or determined from scale maps and public-access data bases. The original taxonomic and functional group data sets were analysed using similarity indices, null models of co-occurrence, and direct and indirect ordination techniques. Results derived from taxonomic and functional group data sets are compared.
Results  Inferences regarding the relative roles of local and larger-scale factors in determining stream fish assemblage structure differ dramatically between analyses of taxonomic and functional groups. Taxonomic analyses suggest a prominent role of regional-scale environmental factors, and local assemblages sorted according to a biogeographic pattern. Functional group analyses suggest almost equal roles of factors representative of local and larger scales, and assemblages were distinguished by a habitat template irrespective of geographic region.
Main conclusions  The structure of local stream fish assemblages is determined ultimately by factors representing multiple scales, with the relative importance of each depending on the biological unit employed (species or functional groups). We suggest that analyses using functional groups can more directly infer ecological responses to environmental variation, and therefore may provide a more fruitful avenue for developing and testing ecological theory of community organization across biogeographic scales.     

Dispersal and recruitment of Tasiagma ciliata (Trichoptera: Tasimiidae) in rainforest streams, south-eastern Australia

1. This study examined genetic variation within and among populations of the caddis fly Tasiagma ciliata (Tasimiidae: Trichoptera) from rainforest streams in south-east Queensland, Australia.
2. Very low levels of genetic differentiation at large spatial scales, between subcatchments and between catchments, indicated that dispersal by the winged adults is widespread. However, significant genetic differentiation at the smallest spatial scale examined, within reaches in a single stream, suggested limited movement by larvae within streams.
3. A patchy distribution of deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and differences in patterns among allozyme loci suggested that populations in particular reaches were the result of only a few matings.
4. These results are surprising, given the large numbers of larvae present within a single reach. We suggest that stochastic effects of recruitment may underlie much of the spatial and temporal variation in population numbers in these rainforest streams.     

Local and ecoregion effects on fish assemblage structure in tributaries of the Rio Paraíba do Sul, Brazil

1.  We examined the effects of physical and chemical habitat variables and ecoregions on species occurrence and fish assemblage structure in streams of the Paraíba do Sul basin, in southeast Brazil.
2.  Fish and environmental data were collected from 42 sites on 26 first to fourth order streams (1 : 50 000 map scale) in three ecoregions. The sites occurred in one valley and two plateau ecoregions at altitudes of 40–1080 m and distances of 0.1–188 km from the main channel of the Rio Paraíba do Sul. Physical habitat (substratum, riparian cover, habitat types) and water quality (dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature and conductivity) variables were measured at each sampling site.
3.  A total of 2684 individuals in 16 families and 59 species were recorded.
4.  Ecoregion was a better predictor of the fish assemblage than the other environmental variables, according to the differences between the mean within-class and mean between-class similarities in assemblage data.
5.  Differing landscape characteristics were associated with differing local variables and thereby with differing fish assemblage structures. Riffles, shrub, grass, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and temperature were closely related to fish assemblage structure.
6.  Fish assemblages in sites far from the main river and at higher altitudes also differed from those near the Paraíba do Sul main channel, presumably as a result of differences in connectivity, covarying environmental factors and anthropogenic influence.
7.  These results reinforce the importance of understanding how stream communities are influenced by processes and patterns operating at local and regional scales, which will aid water resource managers to target those factors in their management and rehabilitation efforts.     

Temporal changes in replicated experimental stream fish assemblages: predictable or not?

Summary 1. Natural aquatic communities or habitats cannot be fully replicated in the wild, so little is known about how initially identical communities might change over time, or the extent to which observed changes in community structure are caused by internal factors (such as interspecific interactions or traits of individual species) versus factors external to the local community (such as abiotic disturbances or invasions of new species).
2. We quantified changes in seven initially identical fish assemblages, in habitats that were as similar as possible, in seminatural artificial streams in a 388-day trial (May 1998 to May 1999), and compared the change to that in fish assemblages in small pools of a natural stream during a year. The experimental design excluded floods, droughts, immigration or emigration. The experimental fish communities diverged significantly in composition and exhibited dissimilar trajectories in multivariate species space. Divergence among the assemblages increased from May through August, but not thereafter.
3. Differences among the experimental assemblages were influenced by differences that developed during the year in algae cover and in potential predation (due to differential survival of sunfish among units).
4. In the natural stream, fish assemblages in small pools changed more than those in the experimental units, suggesting that in natural assemblages external factors exacerbated temporal variation.
5. Our finding that initially identical assemblages, isolated from most external factors, would diverge in the structure of fish assemblages over time suggests a lack of strong internal, deterministic controls in the assemblages, and that idiosyncratic or stochastic components (chance encounters among species; vagaries in changes in the local habitat) even within habitat patches can play an important role in assemblage structure in natural systems.     

Hydrological connectivity drives patterns of macroinvertebrate biodiversity in floodplain rivers of the Australian wet /dry tropics

1. Floodplain rivers in Australia's wet/dry tropics are regarded as being among the most ecologically intact and bio-diverse lotic ecosystems in the world, yet there have been relatively few community-based studies of their aquatic fauna.
2. To investigate relationships between hydrological connectivity and biodiversity in the region, macroinvertebrates were collected from sites within two contrasting floodplain rivers, the 'tropical' Gregory River and 'dryland' Flinders River systems, during the dry season and analysed at various spatial scales. A subset of sites was re-sampled in the following dry season to explore temporal variation. The fauna consisted of 124 morphotaxa, dominated by gatherers and the Insecta.
3. As predicted, hydrological connectivity (the lotic or lentic status of waterbodies) had a major influence on macroinvertebrate assemblage composition and diversity, both in space and time. Assemblages from waterbodies with similar connection histories were most alike, and beta-diversity between assemblages was greatest between lotic and lentic waterbodies, tending to increase with increasing spatial separation.
4. At smaller spatial scales, a number of within-waterbody, habitat and water quality characteristics were important for explaining variation (61%) in the taxonomic organization of assemblages, and characteristics associated with primary productivity and habitat diversity were important for explaining variation (45%) in the functional organization of assemblages. However, much of the small-scale environmental variation across the study region appeared to be related to broad-scale variation in hydrological connectivity, which had both direct and indirect effects on macroinvertebrate assemblages.
5. Conservation of the biodiversity in Australia's wet/dry tropics may depend on conserving the natural variation in hydrological connectivity and the unregulated flow of floodplain rivers.     

Environmental and geographical determinants of beta diversity of leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in the Iberian Peninsula

Abstract.  1. The effect and relative importance of both environmental and geographic factors on species turnover of Chrysomelidae assemblages in the Iberian Peninsula was explored.
2. Ordination and classification analysis of species lists from well-sampled local areas identified two main biogegraphic groups of inventories, discriminating between Eurosiberian and Mediterranean faunas.
3. After describing this pattern, the underlying determinants were explored, separating pure from combined effects of environment and geography by means of partial canonical correspondence analysis.
4. Results indicate that pure effects of environment and geographic position are of similar magnitude (about 20% of the variation from each), and quite important in comparison with combined effects.
5. The power of the pure effect of geographical variables, together with beta-diversity independence of species richness gradients, point to the inadequacy of environmental measurement explanation of beta-diversity patterns, and to the existence of a major component of geographical variation independent of environment.     

Beta diversity of stream fish assemblages: partitioning variation between spatial and environmental factors

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Predictive modelling of freshwater fish as a biomonitoring tool in New Zealand

SUMMARY 1. A challenge has been issued to ecologists to find quantitative ecological relationships that have predictive power. A predictive approach has been successful when applied to biomonitoring using stream invertebrates with the River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification System (RIVPACS). This approach, to our knowledge, has not been applied to freshwater fish assemblages.
2. This paper describes the initial results of the application of a regional predictive model of freshwater fish occurrence using 200 reference sites sampled in the Manawatu–Wanganui region of New Zealand over late summer/autumn 2000. In brief (i) sites were classified into biotic groups (ii) the physical and chemical characteristics that best describe variation among these groups were determined and (iii) the relationship between these environmental variables and fish communities was used to predict the fauna expected at a site.
3. Reference sites clustered into six groups based on fish density and community composition. Using 14 physical variables least influenced by human activities, a discriminant model allocated 70% of sites to the correct biological classification group. The variables that best separated the site groups were mainly large-scale variables including altitude, distance from the coast, lotic ecoregion and map co-ordinates.
4. The model was further validated by randomly removing 20% of the sites, rebuilding the model and then determining the number of removed sites correctly allocated to their original biotic groups using environmental variables. Using this process 67% of the removed sites were correctly reassigned to the six predetermined groups.
5. A further 30 sites were used to determine the ability of the model to detect anthropogenic impact. The observed over expected taxa ( O / E ) ratios were significantly lower than the reference site O / E ratios, indicating a response of the fish assemblages to the known stressors.     

Assessing introgression of foreign strains in wild Atlantic salmon populations: variation in microsatellites assessed in historic scale collections

1. Genetic variation at five microsatellite loci was analysed in a collection of scales (1970–97) sampled from Atlantic salmon adults returning to the Nivelle River (South France).
2. Native and foreign fish (from an allochthonous Scottish stock introduced into the river to increase population size) were clearly identified as all foreign individuals released in the river were physically marked.
3. Introgression of foreign genes into the native gene pool has occurred, although the reproductive success of foreign Atlantic salmon in the wild was lower than that of native individuals.
4. The utility of old scale samples for investigating the impact of foreign stocking on wild fish populations is demonstrated in this work.     

Isolation and differentiation of Rivulus hartii across Trinidad and neighboring islands

Diversification of freshwater fishes on islands is considered unlikely because the traits that enable successful colonization—specifically, broad salinity tolerances and the potential for oceanic dispersal—may also constrain post‐colonization genetic differentiation. Some secondary freshwater fish, however, exhibit pronounced genetic differentiation and geographic structure on islands, whereas others do not. It is unclear what conditions give rise to contrasting patterns of differentiation because few comparative reconstructions of population history have been carried out for insular freshwater fishes. In this study, we examined the phylogeography of Hart’s killifish (Rivulus hartii) across Trinidad, with reference to neighboring islands and northern South America, to test hypotheses of colonization and differentiation derived from comparable work on co‐occurring guppies (Poecilia reticulata). Geographic patterns of mitochondrial DNA haplotype variation and microsatellite genotype variation provide evidence of genetic differentiation of R. hartii among islands and across Trinidad. Our findings are largely consistent with patterns of geographically structured ancestry and admixture found in Trinidadian guppies, which suggests that both species share a history of colonization and differentiation and that post‐colonization diversification may be more common among members of insular freshwater fish assemblages than has been previously thought.     

Competition and dispersal in the pea aphid: clonal variation and correlations across traits

Abstract.  1. The presence of an across-species trade-off between dispersal ability and competitive ability has been proposed as a mechanism that facilitates coexistence. It is not clear if a similar trade-off exists within species. Such a trade-off would constrain the evolution of either trait and, given appropriate selection pressures, promote local adaptation in these traits.
2. This study found substantial levels of heritable variation in competitive ability of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris (Homoptera: Aphididae), measured in terms of relative survival when reared with a single clone of the vetch aphid, Megoura viciae Buckton (Homoptera: Aphididae).
3. Pea aphids can move to new patches by either flying (longer distance dispersal) or walking (local dispersal) from plant to plant. There was considerable clonal variation in dispersal ability, measured in terms of the proportion of winged offspring produced, and ability to survive away from their host plant.
4. Winged individuals showed longer off-plant survival times than wingless forms of the same pea aphid clone.
5. There was no evidence of a relationship between clonal competitive ability and either measure of dispersal ability, although the power of the test is limited by the number of pea aphid clones used in the trial.
6. However, there was a positive correlation between clonal fecundity and the proportion of winged offspring produced. Although speculative, it is suggested that clones that are more likely to either overwhelm their host plant or attract higher numbers of natural enemies as a result of having higher fecundity are more likely to produce winged morphs.     

Spatial and temporal patterns in the fish assemblages of individual pools in a midwestern stream (U.S.A.)

Synopsis The composition and consistency of fish assemblages in 14 adjacent pools (6–120 m long) of a clear-water, limestone and gravel creek in midwestern U.S.A. were quantified in eight snorkeling surveys over 19 months, to establish a baseline of natural variation in the system at this scale. The fauna of the stream was dominated numerically by minnows (Cyprinidae), sunfish and black bass (Centrarchidae), and topminnows (Fundulidae). The pool fish fauna of the total 1 km reach (including all 14 pools) was highly consistent throughout the study, despite two major floods. Assemblages in individual pools generally were consistent, but there was more variation within pools than at the scale of the entire reach. Throughout the study, most individual pools remained within discrete subsets of the total occupied multivariate space in a principal components analysis based on fish species abundances. Sunfishes (Lepomis spp.) and bass (Micropterus spp.) were more consistent in their distribution among pools than were minnows (Cyprinidae) or a topminnow (Fundulus). There were 25 significant correlations in occurrence of species pairs among stream pools, out of 91 possible comparisons of the 14 most abundant taxa in the reach. Many pools contained assemblages either dominated by large centrarchids or by abundant cyprinids and juvenile centrarchids, but intermediate assemblages also were observed. The dynamics of distribution of fish species and fish assemblages among individual stream pools are likely influenced by a combination of species-specific behaviors and habitat selection, predator constraints on use of individual pools by small fishes, riffles as size-selective barriers to fish movements between pools, dispersal of young-of-the-year fishes, and abiotic phenomena like floods. Individual stream pools appear to be discrete habitat units for fishes, and do represent an appropriate scale for biologically meaningful studies of fish assemblages or their effects on streams.Department of Zoology, University of Oklahoma     

Development and validation of a fish-based index for the assessment of 'river health' in France

SUMMARY 1. In Europe, water policy is currently undergoing considerable change as emphasised by the recent European Water Framework Directive (WFD), which requires the restoration and maintenance of 'healthy' aquatic ecosystems by the assessment of their hydromorphological, chemical and biological characteristics. If the requirements of the WFD are to be met, effective biological tools are needed to measure the 'health' of rivers at scales large enough to be useful for management. These tools need to be ecologically based, efficient, rapid and applicable in different ecological regions. Among potential indicators, fish assemblages are of particular interest because of their ability to integrate environmental variability at different spatial scales. To meet the goals of the WFD, the French Water Agencies and the Ministry of the Environment initiated a research programme to develop a fish-based index that would be applicable nationwide.
2. A variety of metrics based on occurrence and abundance data and reflecting different aspects of the fish assemblage structure and function were selected from available literature and for their potential to indicate degradation.
3. Logistic and multiple linear regression procedures were applied, using an initial data set of 650 reference sites fairly evenly distributed across French rivers and defined by some easily measured regional and local characteristics, to elaborate the simplest possible response model that adequately explained the observed patterns of each metric for a given site.
4. Models obtained for each metric were validated using two independent data sets of 88 reference sites and 88 disturbed sites. These procedures allowed us to select the most effective metrics in discriminating between reference and disturbed sites.     

The effects of turbidity and an invasive species on foraging success of rosyside dace (Clinostomus funduloides)

1.  Habitat degradation and biological invasions are important threats to fish diversity worldwide. We experimentally examined the effects of turbidity, velocity and intra- and interspecific competition on prey capture location, reactive distance and prey capture success of native rosyside dace ( Clinostomus funduloides ) and invasive yellowfin shiners ( Notropis lutipinnis ) in Coweeta Creek, North Carolina, U.S.A.
2.  Increased turbidity and velocity produced significant decreases in the number of prey captured forward of the fish's location. It is possible that this represents an increase in the amount of energy expended per prey captured.
3.  We used Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) to evaluate competing explanatory models for reactive distance (10 generalised linear models, GLM) and prey capture success (9 generalised linear mixed models, GLMM).
4.  Reactive distance decreased by 12% with an increase from 2 to 4 conspecifics, whereas a 10 NTU increase in turbidity reduced reactive distance by 9%. Capture success was affected by velocity, dominance and competition, and varied among species. A 6 cm s⁻¹ increase in velocity produced a 28% decline in capture probability; however, dominant fish were 3.2 times more likely to capture a prey item than non-dominant fish. Yellowfin shiners only were 0.62 times as likely to capture a prey item as rosyside dace. Both intra- and interspecific competition reduced capture probability, and fish in high density intraspecific or interspecific trials were 0.46 times and 0.44 times as likely to capture prey, respectively, as fish in two fish intraspecific trials.
5.  These results suggest behavioural variables are as important as physical factors in determining reactive distance and capture probability by these minnows.     

Biogeography,ecoregions, and geomorphology affect fish species composition in streams of eastern Oklahoma,USA

Stream fish assemblages are structured by biogeographical, physical and biological factors acting on different spatial scales. We determined how physical factors, geomorphology and stream habitat, influenced fish species composition (presence–absence) in eastern Oklahoma, USA relative to the ecoregion and biogeographic effects previously reported. We sampled fish assemblages and surveyed geomorphology and habitat at 107 stream sites in the Boston Mountains, Ouachita Mountains, and Ozark Highlands ecoregions in eastern Oklahoma. Partial canonical correspondence analyses (pCCAs) and variance partitioning showed that patterns of endemism related to drainage basins and ecoregions explained important variation in fish species composition in all streams, but stream size and local channel morphology explained more variation overall. Stream size effects were most important in explaining variability in fish species composition in both northeastern and southeastern Oklahoma streams. Local channel morphology and substrate characteristics were secondarily important. Variables typically considered important as fish habitat (aquatic vegetation, etc.) had little effect on fish species composition.     

Using passive sonic telemetry methods to evaluate dispersal and subsequent movements of hatchery-reared white sturgeon in the Kootenay River

A total of 35, age 1 juvenile Kootenay River white sturgeon ( Acipenser transmontanus ), were fitted with sonic tags in 2005 and released as part of larger hatchery release groups at five sites to evaluate dispersal and subsequent movements (seven tags per site). Juvenile sturgeon released at three locations within the deep, low gradient reach (typical gradient of 0.02 m km⁻¹ and velocities of <0.4 m s⁻¹) of the Kootenay River below Bonners Ferry, ID showed substantial dispersal both up and downstream; however, downstream redistribution was more common. White sturgeon from all three release locations overlapped during dispersal, with 9% of tagged fish moving from river release sites into Kootenay Lake. The three hatchery release locations in this low gradient reach produced good dispersal of hatchery progeny into available habitats. Tagged fish released above Bonners Ferry in the shallow, higher gradient reach (typical gradient of 0.6 m km⁻¹, and velocities >0.8 m s⁻¹) at two additional sites all moved downstream of the gradient break at Bonners Ferry, ID into the lower gradient reach within 2 months of release. In total, 93% of these tagged fish relocated to the low gradient section within 25 days of release, with some fish undertaking this movement within 1 day. In general, age 1 hatchery release juveniles were mobile and capable of substantial movements.     

Broad-scale patterns of body size in squamate reptiles of Europe and North America

Aim  To document geographical interspecific patterns of body size of European and North American squamate reptile assemblages and explore the relationship between body size patterns and environmental gradients.
Location  North America and western Europe.
Methods  We processed distribution maps for native species of squamate reptiles to document interspecific spatial variation of body size at a grain size of 110 × 110 km. We also examined seven environmental variables linked to four hypotheses possibly influencing body size gradients. We used simple and multiple regression, evaluated using information theory, to identify the set of models best supported by the data.
Results  Europe is characterized by clear latitudinal trends in body size, whereas geographical variation in body size in North America is complex. There is a consistent association of mean body size with measures of ambient energy in both regions, although lizards increase in size northwards whereas snakes show the opposite pattern. Our best models accounted for almost 60% of the variation in body size of lizards and snakes within Europe, but the proportions of variance explained in North America were less than 20%.
Main conclusions  Although body size influences the energy balance of thermoregulating ectotherms, inconsistent biogeographical patterns and contrasting associations with energy in lizards and snakes suggest that no single mechanism can explain variation of reptile body size in the northern temperate zone.