Pollination of Kadsura longipedunculata (Schisandraceae), a monoecious basal angiosperm, by female, pollen-eating Megommata sp. (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) in China

The plants of Kadsura longipedunculata (Schisandraceae) are monoecious and possess either red or yellow male flowers (the androecium), with yellow tepals, and yellow female flowers. All flower types simultaneously produce heat and floral odours (dominated by methyl butyrate) throughout a 4–5-h nocturnal period. The flowers are pollinated only by female, pollen-eating Megommata sp. (Cecidomyiidae). Pollen is the only reward, and female flowers use the same attractants as male flowers but offer no food (pollination by deceit). Open pollinated flowers in nature varied in fruit set from 8 to 92%. Megommata (subfamily Cecidomyiinae, supertribe Cecidomyiidi), consists of six described species, which feed on Coccoidea (scale insects) and are distributed worldwide.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 523–536.     

Deceit pollination and the effect of deforestation on reproduction in dioecious Schisandra sphenanthera (Schisandraceae) in Central-China

The fruits of Schisandra sphenanthera (dioecious) are used to produce ‘Nan-Wuweizi’, an important Chinese medicine. However, long-term exploitation and habitat destruction have threatened these plants in nature. Knowledge of the reproductive biology of S. sphenanthera is essential to help formulate a conservation strategy for these plants. Field studies were conducted at Jigong Mountain (JGM) and Jinji Valley (JJV) in Henan and Hubei Provinces, China. The reproductive biology of S. sphenanthera was analyzed at these sites, including population structure, pollination, floral morphology, and natural fruit set. The 11 populations at two sites were male biased. The primary floral visitors were gall midges (Resseliella sp., Cecidomyiidae; Diptera) and thrips (Thrips flavidulus; Thysanoptera). Floral visitor exclusion experiments and pollen load analysis indicate that gall midges are the primary pollinators. Pollen was the only floral reward for the gall midges. Female flowers attracted pollinators using deceit. The natural fruit set ratio in the cut forest site (JJV) was significantly lower than that at the JGM site, where habitats of S. sphenanthera were well preserved. This indicates that the life cycles of S. sphenanthera and the pollinating insects are vulnerable in disturbed (or cut) habitats.     

Deceit pollination and the effect of deforestation on reproduction in dioecious Schisandra sphenanthera (Schisandraceae) in central China

The fruits of Schisandra sphenanthera (dioecious) are used to produce ‘Nan-Wuweizi',an important Chinese medicine.However,long-term exploitation and habitat destruction have threatened these plants in ...     

Pollination systems, biogeography, and divergence times of three allopatric species of Schisandra in North America, China, and Japan

This study analyses the pollination systems and biogeography of three allopatdc species of Schisandra (Section Euschisandra) consisting of S.glabra (North America),S.bicolor (China),and S.repanda (Japan); the clade is delimited in a phylogenetic tree of Schisandraceae constructed with nuclear and plastid genes.The male and female flowers of these species have similar floral structures,but exhibit different pollination systems.At the base of the clade,S.glabra is pollinated by a wide variety of beetles and flies in a generalist pollination system that also includes floral heat and the use of male and female flowers as brood sites for insects.In Asia,however,S.bicolor and S.repanda are pollinated exclusively by one or two different species of gall midges (Resseliella spp.) in a specialist pollination system.In this system only female,pollen-eating gall midges pollinate the flowers and breed on nearby spiderwebs.The gall midge pollination system is specialized and derived from the generalist system in S.glabra,and basal in the clade.Pollen is the main floral resource,and we hypothesize it is exploited to enrich eggs,and as a result species of gall midges could increase reproductive fitness by feeding on a single dependable food source.Subsequently the life cycles of the plants and insects evolved into a tight association in old stable plant communities in the Sino-Japanese flora.Divergence times for the plant species are presented and correlated with past distributions and migration routes.     

Pollination by fungus gnats in four species of the genus Mitella (Saxifragaceae)

The first example of pollination by fungus gnats in the eudicots is reported. The genus Mitella (Saxifragales) is characteristically produces minute, inconspicuous, mostly dull-coloured flowers with linear, sometimes pinnately branched, petals. To understand the function of these characteristic flowers, we studied the pollination biology of four Mitella species with different floral traits and different sexual expression: dioecious M. acerina , gynodioecious M. furusei var. subramosa , and hermaphroditic M. stylosa var. makinoi and M. integripetala. Flower-bagging experiments showed that wind pollination did not occur in the dioecious and gynodioecious species. Two years of observations of flower visitors at six study sites in Japan revealed that the principal pollinators of all four Mitella were specific species of fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae), which landed on the flowers with their long spiny legs settling on the petals. Characteristically, numerous pollen grains were attached to the fungus gnats in specific locations on the body. Although, on average, 1.3–2.6 fungus gnats visited each inflorescence per day, the fruit set of both bisexual and female flowers exceeded 63%. These results suggest that fungus gnats are highly efficient pollinators of Mitella spp., and that Mitella flowers are morphologically adapted to pollination by fungus gnats.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 144 , 449–460.     

Pollination by deceit in nutmeg (Myristica insipida, Myristicaceae): floral displays and beetle activity at male and female trees

Pollination by deceit in Myristica insipida, a beetle-pollinated nutmeg, was hypothesized to operate on intersexual differences in flower production and longevity, producing a daily fluctuation between floral display maxima and minima. Sticky traps were used to continuously monitor beetle activity. Flower production and naturally occurring intersexual differences in display were recorded. Male and female trees flowered in synchrony producing daily display maxima at 1800-0600 and display minima at 1400-1800. Rewarding male trees produced three times the number of flowers of female trees, but the greater longevity of female flowers reduced the intersexual difference in display maxima to a factor of two. There was no intersexual difference in display minima. Beetles were demonstrated to be sensitive to differences in both maximum and minimum displays on rewarding male trees, a necessary prerequisite for directional selection on display size. Beetle captures were significantly higher at male trees during floral display maxima, and no intersexual differences in capture rate occurred during floral display minima. However, capture rates at male trees did not decline as predicted, and the pattern of captures was consistent with crepuscular activity. Beetle captures at male and female trees were lower from 1800 to 0600 and 1000 to 1400, and higher from 0600 to 1000 and 1400 to 1800, but the differences were only significant at female trees. These data suggests that foraging errors are numerous, frequent, and the result of overall foraging activity.     

浙江短角瘿蚊属一新种记述(双翅目:瘿蚊科)

记述采自浙江省的短角瘿蚊1新种:狭短角瘿蚊Anarete angusta Mo et Xu,sp.nov..     

Pollination mutualism between Alocasia macrorrhizos (Araceae) and two taxonomically undescribed Colocasiomyia species (Diptera: Drosophilidae) in Sabah, Borneo

Two taxonomically undescribed Colocasiomyia species were discovered from inflorescences of Alocasia macrorrhizos in Kota Kinabalu City, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. The aims of this study were to investigate the reproductive ecology of the flies and the plant, ascertain the importance of the flies as pollinators and examine the intimate association between flowering events and life history of the flies. We conducted sampling, observations and field pollination experiments. The flies were attracted by the odour of female‐phase inflorescences in the early morning on the first day of anthesis. They fed, mated and oviposited in the inflorescences for 1 day. On the second day, the flies, covered with pollen grains, left the male‐phase inflorescences for the next female‐phase inflorescences. The immature forms of both fly species hatched, developed and pupated within the infructescences without damaging the fruits, and developed adults emerged when the mature infructescences dehisced. The flowering events and fly behaviours were well synchronized. In field pollination experiments, inflorescences bagged with a fine mesh (insect exclusion) produced almost no fruits, whereas those bagged with a coarse mesh (bee exclusion) produced as many fruits as the open‐pollinated controls. These results indicate that these flies are the most efficient and specialised pollinators for their host, A. macrorrhizos. These flies, in return, depend on A. macrorrhizos for food and habitat through most of their life cycle. This study provides a deeper insight into the less recognised, highly intimate pollination mutualism between Araceae plants and Colocasiomyia flies.     

Structure of floral galls of Byrsonima sericea (Malpighiaceae) induced by Bruggmanniella byrsonimae (Cecidomyiidae,Diptera) and their effects on host plants

Galls are anomalies in plant development from parasitic origin, and affect cellular differentiation or growth of plants. This parasite–plant interaction occurs in many environments and typically in vegetative organs of plants. The existence of galls in reproductive organs and their effects on the host plant are seldom described in the literature. In this paper, we present a novel study of galls in plants of the neotropical region. Galls of Bruggmmaniella byrsonimae develop in the flower buds of Byrsonima sericea DC. (Malpighiaceae) and affect development of the reproductive organs and the reproductive effort of these plants. The sepals and petals show hypertrophy of parenchyma tissues after differentiation, and the stamens exhibit degeneration of the sporogenic tissue. The gynoecium is not entirely developed; ovary and ovules are often absent. Changes in vascular tissues are also frequent, which may indicate high demand for nutrient resources by the new tissues initiated by the larva. We compared the amount of inflorescences, galls and fruits to evaluate possible effects on host reproduction. The results suggest that the Cecidomyiidae galls in flower organs affect fruit set and the reproductive success of B. sericea.     

广东地区外来种五爪金龙的传粉生物学研究（英文）

五爪金龙(Ipomoea cairica)是一种匍匐或攀援生长的入侵杂草。2006-2007年作者在广东地区开展了对该入侵种的传粉生物学研究。五爪金龙在广东全年均可开花,花序为聚伞花序,花冠为紫色或蓝紫色喇叭状。开花时间在早晨4:30-5:20之间,下午17:40闭合,持续大约12h。每朵花平均分泌花蜜量为5.82±2.47μL(n=10),花蜜平均含糖量为41.03±6.52%,氨基酸含量为0.042mg/mL。开花过程中花粉活性和柱头可受性均保持较高水平(>90%)。花粉/胚珠比率(P/O)为4,778.18±264.58(n=10)。木蜂(Xylocopasp.)是其有效的传粉昆虫,蝇类和蝶类为随机访问者。开花过程中柱头与花药相接触,有利于自花授粉。然而,繁育系统的研究表明五爪金龙是自交不亲和植物,其种子仅能通过异花授粉获得。     

Morphological,genetic and symptomatic identification of an invasive jujube pest in Korea,Dasineura jujubifolia Jiao & Bu (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Correct identification of invasive species is an important step for further management of this species. New type of leafcurling gall midge feeding on jujube, Ziziphus jujube Miller (Rhamnaceae), was discovered in Korea in 2011. At that time, this species was not identified as specific level, so it was recorded as Dasineura sp. Since then, the jujube gall midge has become a serious alien insect pest in Korea. In this study, this jujube gall midge was surveyed by collecting damaged leaf samples from different major jujube-producing regions in Korea. Morphological, genetic and symptomatic identification of this invasive jujube pest identified as Dasineura jujubifolia Jiao & Bu. Here we provided its taxonomic status, geographical distribution, morphological characteristics of all stages and infestation symptoms. In addition to classical morphological characters, mitochondrial COI barcoding sequences were generated for several specimens. The possible pathway of invasion and subsequent socioeconomic consequences were discussed.     

Pollination biology of Cymbidium goeringii (Orchidaceae) in China

The genus Cymbidium comprises three subgenera with ca. 50 species. Interactions between pollinators and plants have been studied in the two subgenera Cymbidium and Cyperorchis, but only a few studies in the subgenus Jensoa have been reported. Here we report on the reproductive characteristics of C. goeringii (in sub-genus Jensoa) in three populations in the southwest of Hunan Province, China, during the winter from December 2005 to March 2006. Floral phenological and morphological features, behavior of visitors, the breeding system, and fruit sets under natural conditions were studied. The flowers of C. goeringii were strongly fragrant, but did not present any rewards to the visitors. The flowering period of C. goeringii in the studied populations lasted about 40 days, and most flowers (about 60%) opened within 30 days. Flowers opened immediately when temperature increased obviously and reached to about 16 ℃. The flowering time of the pollinated flowers, unpollinated flow-ers and the flowers with pollinarium removed were similar. Two bees of Apidae, Apis cerana cerana (honeybee) and Anthophora melanognatha, were observed visiting flowers of C. goeringii, but only the honeybees performed as pollinators. The honeybees mostly visited the orchid flowers at 10:00–17:00 on sunny days with temperature above 10 ℃. A total of only thirteen visits were observed during 20 days of observation, indicating pollinators were rare. Honeybees directly landed on the upper surface of the labellum and inserted their heads into the flowers between column and labellum, while the hind legs trod on the surface of the curved downward mid-lobe of label-lum. When a honeybee landed on the labellum of a flower, the labellum moved up and down slightly. After the honeybee entered the flower further, its head might touch the foot of the column. At this time, the body of the honeybee was parallel with the upper surface of the labellum. Then the honeybee used its front legs to scratch on the callus ridges on the upper surface of the labellum, and its hind legs hooked the edges of the side lobe of label-lum, trying to exit forcibly from the flower. During exiting process, sometimes the honeybee’s body was arched owing to tension. In this case, the surface of the scutellum came into close contact with the viscidium and then pollinaria, together with the anther cap, were removed. When this honeybee visited next flower, the pollinaria would be adhered to the stigma when it arched its body during the exiting process. Three plant species flowered synchronously with C. goeringii in the studied areas, but their flowers were different with C. goeringii in color or shape. Because C. goeringii is rewardless to pollinators, the flowers probably attract visitors by olfactory stimu-lus. Breeding system experiments showed no spontaneous autogamy and pollination success relying on pollinators in C. goeringii. Artificial pollination resulted in 90% fruit set by induced autogamy, 100% by pollinating within clone, and 100% by xenogamous pollination, respectively. These results indicate that C. goeringii is highly self-compatible and the fruit production is pollen limited. Because pollinators are essential for fruit set of C. goeringii in natural habitats, protection of wild honeybee populations or apiculture is likely a simple but effective strategy to maintain the orchid populations.     

广东地区外来种五爪金龙的传粉生物学研究

五爪金龙(Ipomoea cairica)是一种匍匐或攀援生长的入侵杂草。2006–2007年作者在广东地区开展了对该入侵种的传粉生物学研究。五爪金龙在广东全年均可开花, 花序为聚伞花序, 花冠为紫色或蓝紫色喇叭状。开花时间在早晨4: 30–5: 20之间, 下午17: 40闭合, 持续大约12 h。每朵花平均分泌花蜜量为5.82 ± 2.47 μL (n = 10), 花蜜平均含糖量为41.03 ± 6.52%, 氨基酸含量为0.042 mg/mL。开花过程中花粉活性和柱头可受性均保持较高水平(>90%)。花粉/胚珠比率(P/O)为4,778.18 ± 264.58 (n = 10)。木蜂(Xylocopa sp.)是其有效的传粉昆虫, 蝇类和蝶类为随机访问者。开花过程中柱头与花药相接触, 有利于自花授粉。然而, 繁育系统的研究表明五爪金龙是自交不亲和植物, 其种子仅能通过异花授粉获得。     

Description of a new species of the genus Resseliella (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), a pollinator of Kadsura longipedunculata (Schisandraceae) in China,with comments on its flower‐visiting habit

A gall midge pollinating flowers of Kadsura longipedunculata is described as Resseliella kadsurae sp. nov. based on adult specimens collected in 2006 from Langshan, Xinning County, Hunan Province, China. The new species is distinguishable from other known congeners in the combination of the following characteristics: gynecoid male flagellomeres, mottled wings, simple claws on all legs; male hypoproct with a transverse bridge‐like structure ventrally connecting both sides of hypoproct. In particular, the gynecoid male flagellomeres and transverse bridge‐like structure are unique to the new species. Partial sequencing of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I mitochondrial gene indicates that R. kadsurae is grouped with the R. theobardi + R. yagoi clade, but this clade and the monophyly of the genus Resseliella are not statistically supported. The new species is nocturnal, and mating occurs at dusk. At the time of mating, males and females hang on opposite sides of non‐sticky old spider webs in a venter‐to‐venter position. Immature stages and the life history of R. kadsurae are unknown. The flower‐visiting habit of R. kadsurae is contrasted with that of other flower‐visiting gall midges and the probability that this behavior exists in other congeners is discussed.     

New data on the genus Chrysotoxum Meigen (Diptera: Syrphidae) from North-East Turkey,Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran including descriptions of three new species

New data and records of the genus Chrysotoxum Meigen, 1803 are reported, arising from taxonomic and faunistic examination of adult specimens collected from 1920 to 2011 from four northeastern provinces of Turkey (Erzurum, Bayburt, Kars, and Artvin), and from the neighboring countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran. Three new species are described: Chrysotoxum antennalis Vuji?, Nedeljkovi? &; Hayat sp. n., C. clausseni Vuji?, Nedeljkovi? &; Hayat sp. n. and C. persicum Vuji?, Nedeljkovi? &; Hayat sp. n. The first two are known only from northeastern Turkey, and the third also occurs in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran. These new species have in common an antenna with the basoflagellomere being shorter than the scape and pedicel together.

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