Rethinking the evolution of extant sub‐Saharan African suids (Suidae,Artiodactyla)

Gongora, J., Cuddahee, R. E., do Nascimento, F. F., Palgrave, C. J., Lowden, S., Ho, S. Y. W., Simond, D., Damayanti, C. S., White, D. J., Tay, W. T., Randi, E., Klingel, H., Rodrigues‐Zarate, C. J., Allen, K., Moran, C. & Larson, G. (2011). Rethinking the evolution of extant sub‐Saharan African suids (Suidae, Artiodactyla). —Zoologica Scripta, 40, 327–335. Although African suids have been of scientific interest for over two centuries, their origin, evolution, phylogeography and phylogenetic relationships remain contentious. There has been a long‐running debate concerning the evolution of pigs and hogs (Suidae), particularly regarding the phylogenetic relationships among extant Eurasian and African species of the subfamily Suinae. To investigate these issues, we analysed the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences of extant genera of Suidae from Eurasia and Africa. Molecular phylogenetic analyses revealed that all extant sub‐Saharan African genera form a monophyletic clade separate from Eurasian suid genera, contradicting previous attempts to resolve the Suidae phylogeny. Two major sub‐Saharan African clades were identified, with Hylochoerus and Phacochoerus grouping together as a sister clade to Potamochoerus. In addition, we find that the ancestors of extant African suids may have evolved separately from the ancestors of modern day Sus and Porcula in Eurasia before they colonised Africa. Our results provide a revision of the intergeneric relationships within the family Suidae.     

Molecular evolutionary relationships of three genera of nesomyinae,endemic rodent taxa from madagascar

The relationships of Nesomyinae, a group of murid rodents endemic to the island of Madagascar, were investigated with two comparative molecular approaches. Compared to those of other muroid rodents representing Murinae, Cricetinae, Cricetomyinae. Arvicolinae, and Sigmodontinae, complete sequences of the 12S rRNA mitochondrial gene suggest that the Malagasy nesomyinesMacrotarsomys andNesomys are monophyletic and that their sister-group among the taxa analyzed isCricetomys. A limited series of DNA/DNA hybridization experiments extends these observations to a third nesomyine genus,Eliurus, and a second cricetomyine taxon,Saccostomus. By relating the amounts of overall genomic divergence with geological time as calibrated by theMus/Rattus dichotomy estimated at 12–14 My, the oldest within-Nesomyinae dichotomy is estimated to be 10.8 to 12.6 My. Thus, these three genera of Malagasy nesomyine rodents appear to be a rather ancient offshoot from African ancestors whose Recent relatives are Cricetomyinae. This preliminary observation should be confirmed by sampling additional genera of nesomyines and additional representatives for other subfamilies of African muroids.     

Phylogeny of Chaetonotidae and other Paucitubulatina (Gastrotricha: Chaetonotida) and the colonization of aquatic ecosystems

Kånneby, T., Todaro, M. A., Jondelius, U. (2012). Phylogeny of Chaetonotidae and other Paucitubulatina (Gastrotricha: Chaetonotida) and the colonization of aquatic ecosystems. —Zoologica Scripta, 42, 88–105. Chaetonotidae is the largest family within Gastrotricha with almost 400 nominal species represented in both freshwater and marine habitats. The group is probably non‐monophyletic and suffers from a troubled taxonomy. Current classification is to a great extent based on shape and distribution of cuticular structures, characters that are highly variable. We present the most densely sampled molecular study so far where 17 of the 31 genera belonging to Chaetonotida are represented. Bayesian and maximum likelihood approaches based on 18S rDNA, 28S rDNA and COI mtDNA are used to reconstruct relationships within Chaetonotidae. The use of cuticular structures for supra‐specific classification within the group is evaluated and the question of dispersal between marine and freshwater habitats is addressed. Moreover, the subgeneric classification of Chaetonotus is tested in a phylogenetic context. Our results show high support for a clade containing Dasydytidae nested within Chaetonotidae. Within this clade, only three genera are monophyletic following current classification. Genera containing both marine and freshwater species never form monophyletic clades and group with other species according to habitat. Marine members of Aspidiophorus appear to be the sister group of all other Chaetonotidae and Dasydytidae, indicating a marine origin of the clade. Halichaetonotus and marine Heterolepidoderma form a monophyletic group in a sister group relationship to freshwater species, pointing towards a secondary invasion of marine environments of these taxa. Our study highlights the problems of current classification based on cuticular structures, characters that show homoplasy for deeper relationships.     

Morphological diversity and evolution of the spermatozoon in the mouse‐related clade of rodents

Most species in the three highly speciose families of the mouse‐related clade of rodents, the Muridae, Cricetidae, and Nesomyidae (superfamily Muroidea), have a highly complex sperm head in which there is an apical hook but there are few data available for the other related families of these rodents. In the current study, using light and electron microscopies, we investigated the structure of the spermatozoon in representative species of four other families within the mouse‐related clade, the Dipodidae, Spalacidae, Pedetidae, and Heteromyidae, that diverged at or near the base of the muroid lineage. Our results indicate that a diverse array of sperm head shapes and tail lengths occurs but none of the species in the families Spalacidae, Dipodidae, or Pedetidae has a sperm head with an apical hook. By contrast, a rostrally extending apical hook is present in spermatozoa of members of the Family Heteromyidae which also invariably have comparatively long sperm tails. These findings suggest that the hook‐shaped sperm head in the murid, cricetid, and nesomyid rodents evolved after divergence of this lineage from its common ancestor with the other families of the mouse‐related clade, and that separate, and independent, convergent evolution of a similar sperm head form, and long sperm tail, occurred in the Heteromyidae. J. Morphol. 275:540–547, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Phylogenetic Relationships and the Radiation of Sigmodontine Rodents in South America: Evidence from Cytochrome b

Phylogenetic relationships among South American sigmodontine rodents were examined based on the complete sequence for the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene [1140 base pairs (bp)] for 66 species and between 759 and 1140 bp for an additional 19 species. Thirty-eight South American genera were represented, coming from eight of nine tribes. Outgroups included the North American murid rodents Peromyscus, Reithrodontomys, Scotinomys, and Neotoma, the Old World murine rodents Mus and Rattus, and the geomyoid genera Thomomys, Geomys, Dipodomys, and Perognathus as the most distant outgroup. The South American sigmodontines were supported as a monophyletic lineage. Within this radiation several clear-cut suprageneric groupings were identified. Many of the currently recognized tribal groupings of genera were found fairly consistently, although not always with high levels of bootstrap support. The various tribes could not be linked hierarchically with any confidence. In addition, several genera stand out as unique entities, without any apparent close relatives. The overall pattern suggests a rapid radiation of the sigmodontines in South America, followed by differentiation at the tribal and generic levels.     

Molecular Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Native Rodents of Madagascar (Muridae: Nesomyinae): A Test of the Single-Origin Hypothesis

Complete nucleotide sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (1143 bp) were used to investigate the phylogenetic relationships among the native rodents of Madagascar. Specifically, this study examines whether the nine genera of nesomyines form a monophyletic group relative to other Old World murids. All nine of the nesomyine genera, including multiple individuals from 15 of the 21 described species, were included in the analysis, and their monophyly was assessed relative to the murid subfamilies Mystromyinae, Petromyscinae, Dendromurinae, Cricetomyinae, Murinae, Rhizomyinae, and Calomyscinae. Phylogenetic analysis of the resulting 95 taxa and 540 characters resulted in 502 equally parsimonious cladograms. The strict consensus tree weakly refutes the monophyly of Nesomyinae and suggests that the Malagasy rodents form a clade with dendromurines (as represented by Steatomys ) and the African rhizomyine Tachyoryctes . The cladogram strongly refutes the association of the South African genus Mystromys with the Malagasy genera and suggests that Petromyscus and Mystromys form a monophyletic group. We provide the first explicitly phylogenetic scenario for the biogeographic history of nesomyine rodents. Our phylogenetic hypothesis indicates: (1) rodents invaded Madagascar only once, (2) they came from Asia not from Africa as is commonly assumed, and (3) there was a secondary invasion of rodents from Madagascar into Africa.     

Molecular phylogeny of telenomine egg parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae s.l.: Telenominae): evolution of host shifts and implications for classification

Parasitoid wasps of the subfamily Telenominae (Hymenoptera: Platygastroidea, Platygastridae) develop as immatures within the eggs of other insects (Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera and Neuroptera). Rearing records indicate that individual species are restricted to attack hosts within only one of these four main groups. We conducted a phylogenetic analysis of the group using sequence data from multiple genes (18S, 28S, COI, EF‐1α) to assess the pattern of shifts among host groups and to test the monophyly of and relationships among genera and species‐groups. Telenominae sensu Masner—that is, including only the nominate tribe Telenomini—is not monophyletic. Representatives of the Psix group of genera (Psix Kozlov & Lê and Paratelenomus Dodd) form a monophyletic group that is sister to Gryon Haliday (Scelioninae: Gryonini) and are excluded from the subfamily. The remaining telenomines are monophyletic. The genus Phanuromyia Dodd and the crassiclava group of Telenomus Haliday, both recorded as parasitoids of planthopper eggs (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha, Fulgoroidea), form a monophyletic group that is sister to all other telenomines exclusive of the Psix group. Twenty‐nine species of the crassiclava and aradi groups of Telenomus are transferred to Phanuromyia as new combinations. Basal elements of the remaining species are all in groups reared from the eggs of true bugs (Heteroptera), primarily the stink bugs (Pentatomoidea) and seed bugs (Lygaeoidea). A shift to parasitism of lepidopteran eggs evolved within a single clade, occurring either one or two times. From this clade a small group of species, the Telenomus tabanivorus group, subsequently shifted to parasitism of egg masses of true flies (Tabanidae and Stratiomyiidae). Aholcus Kieffer and Platytelenomus Dodd both belong to the clade of lepidopteran parasitoids and are considered as junior synonyms of Telenomus (new synonymy for Aholcus). The monophyletic status of the two core genera, Telenomus and Trissolcus could not be resolved using these data. The phylogenetic pattern of host shifts suggests comparisons among taxa that may be fruitful in elucidating mechanisms by which parasitoids locate their hosts, the proximate factors that determine the host range, and the changes in these factors that influence host changes.     

Evolution of blindness in scolopendromorph centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha): insight from an expanded sampling of molecular data

Relative to its diversity (34 genera, 700 species), Scolopendromorpha has been undersampled in molecular phylogenetic analyses compared with the other chilopod orders. Previous analyses based on morphology have not resolved several key controversies in systematics and evolutionary morphology unambiguously. Here we apply new molecular and morphological data to scolopendromorph phylogenetics, with a focus on the evolution of blindness. The taxonomic sample includes 19 genera, many lacking previous molecular data, and diverse, cosmopolitan genera of Scolopendridae are sampled by multiple species. Phylogenetic analysis with Direct Optimization used 94 morphological characters and ca. 4.5 kb of sequence data from two nuclear (18S and 28S rRNA) and two mitochondrial (16S rRNA and COI) loci. A single most‐parsimonious cladogram selected after sensitivity analyses resolves Scolopendromorpha as monophyletic, and divides it into a blind clade of three families (Plutoniumidae, Cryptopidae, Scolopocryptopidae) and its ocellate sister group, Scolopendridae. Some species‐rich, cosmopolitan genera (Cormocephalus, Otostigmus, Scolopendra) in Scolopendridae are non‐monophyletic, and in several instances (e.g. New and Old World Scolopendra) relationships are more congruent with geographical distributions than with traditional classifications. The tribe Asanadini is particularly subject to parameter‐sensitivity, nesting in the combined analysis within Scolopendrini but as sister to all other Scolopendrinae for molecular data alone. The total‐evidence tree unambiguously optimizes trunk segmentation: a 23‐segmented trunk has a single origin in the blind clade. © The Willi Hennig Society 2011.     

Generic relationships among the baccate-fruited Amaryllidaceae (tribe Haemantheae) inferred from plastid and nuclear non-coding DNA sequences

Using sequences from the plastid trnL-F region and nrDNA ITS, we investigated the phylogeny of the fleshy-fruited African tribe Haemantheae of the Amaryllidaceae across 19 species representing all genera of the tribe. ITS and a combined matrix produce the most resolute and well-supported tree with parsimony analysis. Two main clades are resolved, one comprising the monophyletic rhizomatous genera Clivia and Cryptostephanus, and a larger clade that unites Haemanthus and Scadoxus as sister genera to an Apodolirion/Gethyllis subclade. One of four included Gethyllis species, G. lanuginosa, resolves as sister to Apodolirion with ITS. Relationships among the Clivia species are not in agreement with a previous published phylogeny. Biogeographic analysis using the divergence/vicariance method roots the tribe in Eastern South Africa, with several subsequent dispersals to the winter rainfall Western Cape region. Chromosomal change from an ancestral 2n=22 (characteristic of Clivia) is associated with each main clade. Reduction in number has occurred in all but Cryptostephanus, which has 2n=24 chromosomes. Increasing the sampling across all of the species in the tribe will allow a more detailed understanding of the biogeographic patterns inherent in the parsimony topology, which undoubtedly reflect Quaternary climatic changes in Southern Africa.     

Molecular phylogenetic investigations of the Viviparidae (Gastropoda: Caenogastropoda) in the lakes of the Rift Valley area of Africa

The freshwater gastropod family Viviparidae is nearly cosmopolitan, but absent from South America. On the African continent, two genera are recognized; the widespread Bellamya and the monotypic Neothauma, which is confined to Lake Tanganyika. Most of the African Bellamya species are confined to the major lakes of the Rift Valley area in Africa, i.e. Lake Albert, Lake Malawi, Lake Mweru, and Lake Victoria. The phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial (COI and 16S) and nuclear (H3, 18S and 28S) DNA inferred three major lake-clades; i.e. Lake Victoria/Kyoga/Albert, Lake Malawi and Lake Mweru/Bangweulu. The endemic B. rubicunda from Lake Albert and B. unicolor from Lake Kyoga were inferred to be part of the Lake Victoria clade. Bellamya capillata as identified by shell characters was polyphyletic in gene trees. The monophyletic Bellamya species radiation in Lake Malawi was most nearly related to the Lake Victoria/Kyoga/Albert-clade. Taxa from the Zambian lakes, Mweru and Bangweulu, were inferred together and placed ancestral to the other lakes. Neothauma tanganyicense was inferred as the sister-group to the Zambian Bellamya. Within the lake-clades the endemic radiations show very low genetic diversities (0–4.1% in COI), suggesting much faster morphological divergence than molecular divergence. Alternatively, Bellamya in Africa constitutes only a few species with several sub-species or eco-phenotypic morphs. The African viviparids were inferred to be the sister-group to a clade comprising Asian species, and the relatively low genetic diversity between the clades (12.6–15.5% in COI) makes a recent Miocene dispersal event from Asia to Africa much more likely than an ancient Gondwana vicarience distribution.     

Evidence for Gondwanan vicariance in an ancient clade of gecko lizards

Aim Geckos (Reptilia: Squamata), due to their great age and global distribution, are excellent candidates to test hypotheses of Gondwanan vicariance against post‐Gondwanan dispersal. Our aims are: to generate a phylogeny of the sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest relatives; evaluate previous phylogenetic hypotheses of the sphaerodactyl geckos with regard to the other major gecko lineages; and to use divergence date estimates to inform a biogeographical scenario regarding Gondwanan relationships and assess the roles of vicariance and dispersal in shaping the current distributions of the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relatives. Location Africa, Asia, Europe, South America, Atlantic Ocean. Methods We used parsimony and partitioned Bayesian methods to analyse data from five nuclear genes to generate a phylogeny for the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their close Old World relatives. We used dispersal–vicariance analysis to determine ancestral area relationships among clades, and divergence times were estimated from the phylogeny using nonparametric rate smoothing. Results We recovered a monophyletic group containing the New World sphaerodactyl genera, Coleodactylus, Gonatodes, Lepidoblepharis, Pseudogonatodes and Sphaerodactylus, and the Old World Gekkotan genera Aristelliger, Euleptes, Quedenfeldtia, Pristurus, Saurodactylus and Teratoscincus. The dispersal–vicariance analysis indicated that the ancestral area for this clade was North Africa and surrounding regions. The divergence between the New World spaherodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relative was estimated to have occurred c. 96 Myr bp . Main conclusions Here we provide the first molecular genetic phylogenetic hypothesis of the New World sphaerodactyl geckos and their closest Old World relatives. A combination of divergence date estimates and dispersal–vicariance analysis informed a biogeographical scenario indicating that the split between the sphaerodactyl geckos and their African relatives coincided with the Africa/South America split and the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. We resurrect the family name Sphaerodactylidae to represent the expanded sphaerodactyl clade.     

Biogeographical origins and diversification of the exoneurine allodapine bees of Australia (Hymenoptera,Apidae)

Aim Early diversification of allodapine bees occurred in Africa c. 50 Ma. They are most abundant in sub‐Saharan Africa and Australia, and one of the oldest phylogenetic divergences in the tribe involves a split between an African + Malagasy clade and an Australian clade. The historical biogeographical scenario for this has been highly problematic, entailing an Eocene dispersal from Africa to Australia, followed by an unresolved, and apparently rapid, set of bifurcations leading to the Australian ‘exoneurine’ genera. Here we use an expanded taxon set of Australian species to explore the timing and historical biogeography of the exoneurine radiation. Location Australia, Africa, Madagascar. Methods One nuclear gene (F2 copy of elongation factor 1α) and two mitochondrial genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and cytochrome b) were sequenced for 33 Australian exoneurine species from all five genera found on the continent, as well as for an additional 37 species from all non‐parasitic genera in the remainder of the tribe. We used Bayesian inference analyses to study phylogenetic topology and penalized likelihood analyses to infer key dates of divergence within the tribe. We also used lineage‐through‐time (LTT) analyses and Bayesian analyses to explore the tempo of radiations and biogeographical history of the exoneurines. Results Results from the phylogenetic analyses were congruent with previous studies, indicating a single colonization event c. 34 Ma, too late for Gondwanan vicariance models, and too early for a Laurasian dispersal route. In contrast to earlier studies, we show that this colonization event did not result in an ancient rapid radiation. However, LTT patterns indicated a rapid radiation of the temperate‐adapted genera Exoneura and Brevineura, but not of the xeric‐adapted genus Exoneurella, from 10 to 6 Ma. Main conclusions Our results indicate a trans‐oceanic dispersal event from Africa to Australia, most likely via Antarctica, with an accelerated diversification of temperate‐adapted lineages during the major Late Miocene event referred to as the ‘Hill Gap’. This is the first study to link radiations in Australian bee faunal elements to changing climate, and differs from many other plant and insect phylogenetic studies by showing increased radiation of temperate clades, rather than xeric clades, with increasing aridification of Australia.     

Phylogenetics of Miscanthus,Saccharum and related genera (Saccharinae,Andropogoneae, Poaceae) based on DNA sequences from ITS nuclear ribosomal DNA and plastid trnLintron and trnL-F intergenic spacers

DNA sequences were used to assess the monophyly and inter-relationships of Miscanthus, Saccharum and related genera in the Saccharum complex. Three DNA regions were sequenced, including the trnL intron and the trnL-F intergenic spacer of the plastid genome and the ITS region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA). Because it was more variable, the ITS region proved most suitable for phylogenetic reconstruction at this level, and the results indicate that Miscanthus s.l. and Saccharum s.l. are polyphyletic. A set of species from Saccharum section Ripidium (clade a) do not group closely with any members of Saccharum s.l.. A number of Miscanthus species from eastern or south-eastern Asia represent a monophyletic group with a basic chromosome number of 19 (clade b), but the other species from Africa and the Himalayas are clearly excluded. There is support for a monophyletic Saccharum s.s. clade including S. officinarum and S. spontaneum that is sister to Miscanthus s.s (clade c). There is no evidence to support the division of some Saccharum s.l. into the genera currently known as Erianthus and Narenga. Saccharum contortum (=Erianthus contortus), S. narenga (=Narenga porphyrocoma) and Erianthus rockii, group more closely with Miscanthus fuscus, a species from the Himalayas and also with the African Miscanthus s.l. species (=Miscanthidium, clade d). Electronic Publication     

A molecular phylogeny of the tribe Aphidini (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aphididae) based on the mitochondrial tRNA/COII, 12S/16S and the nuclear EF1α genes

Abstract A phylogeny of the tribe Aphidini (Hemiptera: Aphididae) was reconstructed from three gene fragments: two mitochondrial regions, partial tRNA‐leucine + cytochrome oxidase II (tRNA/COII), partial 12S rRNA + tRNA‐valine + 16S rRNA (12S/16S) and one nuclear gene, the elongation factor‐1 alpha (EF1α). Bayesian phylogenetic (BP) analyses were performed on each individual dataset of tRNA/COII, 12S/16S and EF1α, and maximum parsimony (MP), Bremer support test, maximum likelihood (ML) and BP analysis were performed on the combined dataset. After comparing our molecular phylogenetic results with the classic classification based on morphological and ecological data, we analysed three main issues: the monophyletic relationships among tribes and subtribes, the validities of the latest taxonomic positions of genera and species and the status of certain Aphis species groups. Our results indicate that 36 of the species analysed, with the exception of Cryptosiphum artemisiae, are clustered within the clade of Aphidini. Also, the 28 species representative of the subtribe Aphidina were separated from the eight species representative of Rhopalosiphina; each monophyletic subtribe was supported by significant P‐values in the combined analysis. According to our results, Cryptosiphum should be moved to Macrosiphini because it is more closely related to the genera Lipaphis and Brevicoryne. The genus Toxoptera was recovered as non‐monophyletic. In Rhopalosiphina, three genera, Hyalopterus, Rhopalosiphum and Schizaphis, were relatively closer to each other than to the genus Melanaphis. In the relationships between species‐groups among Aphis, most species were separated into two main lineages; the fabae group seemed to be more closely related to the spiraecola and craccivora group rather than to the gossypii group.     

Molecular phylogeny and evolution of host-plant use in conifer seed chalcids in the genus Megastigmus (Hymenoptera: Torymidae)

Abstract. Phylogenetic relationships amongst Megastigmus species (Chalcidoidea: Torymidae) associated with conifer seeds were inferred from DNA sequence data. Twenty‐nine species of seed chalcids were analysed using two different genes, cytochrome b (mitochondrial DNA) and the D2 domain of the 28S ribosomal DNA. Maximum‐parsimony and maximum‐likelihood analyses showed that taxa formed two monophyletic groups, one clade comprising all species associated with Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae hosts with the exception of Chamaecyparis, and the other clade composed of species associated with Pinaceae. Species infesting Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae seemed to be specialized to particular host genera or even to be species specific, which was consistent with a taxonomic radiation following initial host adaptation. By contrast, Megastigmus species associated with Pinaceae appeared capable of shifting onto different congeneric species or even onto a new host genus, with their evolution apparently less constrained by plant association. We hypothesized that the Megastigmus group associated with Pinaceae may have a much higher invasive potential than that related to Cupressaceae. The study also confirmed the presence of invasive Nearctic species in the Palaearctic, and demonstrated the existence of a cryptic species complex.     

Phylogeny of Mesoamerican freshwater mussels and a revised tribe‐level classification of the Ambleminae

Evolutionary and ecological hypotheses of the freshwater mussel subfamily Ambleminae are intensely geographically biased—a consequence of the complete exclusion of Mesoamerican taxa in phylogenetic reconstructions of the clade. We set out to integrate a portion of the Mesoamerican freshwater mussel assemblage into existing hypotheses of amblemine classification and evolution by generating a molecular phylogeny that includes four previously unsampled Mesoamerican genera and nine species endemic to that region. Given the traditionally hypothesized affinity to Nearctic mussels and the understanding that classification should reflect common ancestry, we predicted that (a) Mesoamerican genera would be recovered as members of the recognized tribes of the Ambleminae, and (b) genera would be supported as monophyletic. The mutilocus phylogeny (COI + 28S + 16S) reported herein does not fully support either of those hypotheses. Neither Cyrtonaias nor Psorula were supported as monophyletic and we predict several other Mesoamerica genera are also non‐monophyletic. The reconstructed phylogeny recovered four independent lineages of Mesoamerican freshwater mussels and these clades are distributed across the phylogeny of the Ambleminae, including the tribe Quadrulini (Megalonaias), Lampsilini (two lineages: Cyrtonaias explicata/Sphenonaias microdon, and Pachynaias), and a previously unrecognized, exclusively Mesoamerican and Rio Grande clade consisting of the genera Psoronaias, Psorula and Popenaias. The latter clade possesses several morphological characteristics that distinguish it from its sister taxon, tribe Lampsilini, and we recognize this newly identified Mesoamerican clade as a fifth tribe of the Ambleminae attributable to the Popenaiadini Heard & Guckert, 1970. This revised classification more completely recognizes the suprageneric diversity of the Ambleminae.     

The gastropod–crustacean connection: towards the phylogeny and evolution of the parasitic copepod family Splanchnotrophidae

Amongst the most significant metazoan taxa associated with gastropod molluscs is the endoparasitic copepod family Splanchnotrophidae. Currently it contains five genera with highly modified morphology and exclusively infesting nudibranch and sacoglossan sea slug hosts. The present study is a first approach towards reconstructing their phylogeny and evolution. Cladistic analysis of 109 morphological characters including 24 known splanchnotrophid species resulted in a fully resolved strict consensus tree that is discussed in morphological, functional, and geographical frameworks. Alternative topologies are also explored. Originating from paraphyletic Philoblennidae, the Splanchnotrophidae emerge as sister group to the genus Briarella. Unique synapomorphies, such as the bizarre body shapes and successive reduction of mouthparts, are discussed as adaptive traits to endoparasitism that evolved only once within copepods infesting shell‐less heterobranch gastropods. The ancestrally Indo‐Pacific Splanchnotrophidae split up into a clade of the still Indo‐Pacific genera Ceratosomicola and Arthurius, sister to a clade composed of the monophyletic amphi‐American genus Ismaila and European Splanchnotrophus emerging from paraphyletic Lomanoticola. Although initial radiation of Briarella and Splanchnotrophidae is likely to have involved chromodoridid nudibranch hosts, later phylogenies of parasites and their hosts are incongruent; intriguingly, host shifts from nudibranch to only distantly related sacoglossan species occurred at least two times independently. Such remarkable ecological plasticity is assumed to have driven splanchnotrophid diversification. Topological hypotheses and historical biogeographical and evolutionary scenarios inferred herein can be tested by future molecular research. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London     

A complete species-level molecular phylogeny for the "Eurasian" starlings (Sturnidae: Sturnus, Acridotheres, and allies): recent diversification in a highly social and dispersive avian group

We generated the first complete phylogeny of extant taxa in a well-defined clade of 26 starling species that is collectively distributed across Eurasia, and which has one species endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. Two species in this group-the European starling Sturnus vulgaris and the common Myna Acridotheres tristis-now occur on continents and islands around the world following human-mediated introductions, and the entire clade is generally notable for being highly social and dispersive, as most of its species breed colonially or move in large flocks as they track ephemeral insect or plant resources, and for associating with humans in urban or agricultural landscapes. Our reconstructions were based on substantial mtDNA (4 kb) and nuclear intron (4 loci, 3 kb total) sequences from 16 species, augmented by mtDNA NDII gene sequences (1 kb) for the remaining 10 taxa for which DNAs were available only from museum skin samples. The resulting mitochondrial gene tree embedded within a multilocus framework shows that the well-studied taxa S. vulgaris/unicolor are the sister lineage to the remaining members of the radiation, from which other relatively early lineages gave rise to forms that are now nomadic or locally migrant in Africa (Creatophora) and western Asia (Pastor). The remaining taxa form a clade with a complicated biogeographic history primarily in central and eastern Asia; this group contains a range of sedentary to highly migratory taxa, as well as widely distributed species and single-island endemics such as the highly endangered Bali myna (Leucopsar). Several groups of species in the genus Acridotheres have low magnitudes of within-group divergence and likely diversified via their respective colonization of islands. The taxonomy of this entire group has remained highly volatile over the past century; we propose dividing these 26 species among 11 reciprocally monophyletic genera (Acridotheres, Poliopsar, Temenuchus, Sturnornis, Leucopsar, Gracupica, Agropsar, Pastor, Creatophora, and Sturnus).