Respiratory Viruses—Current Status and Future Prospects

The application of tissue culture technology has revealed several new groups of viruses, comprising scores of different serotypes, as important causes of upper and lower respiratory tract disease in man. Other agents as yet unrecognized undoubtedly exist.Present epidemiologic data, although still incomplete, point up the unique importance of certain of these viruses in respiratory diseases.The particular type and severity of respiratory syndrome produced by a virus is determined by the immune status of the host, by the presence of complicating disease and by characteristics intrinsic in the infecting agent itself.Respiratory virus control might be particularly beneficial in certain groups, particularly persons with allergic sensitivity and chronic pulmonary disease.For control of viral respiratory disease, active immunization would provide significant protection but highly polyvalent vaccines might be necessary. Adjuvants could be helpful in this regard.Certain vaccines formerly in use were produced from strains of viruses which have recently been shown to be oncogenic in animals. In addition, hybridization of viruses can occur, resulting in the incorporation of the oncogenic potential of one agent into the genetic constitution of another. The significance of these biologic phenomena to vaccination programs has yet to be defined.Passive immunization would provide short-lived protection and would find application only in uniquely susceptible populations or at times of augmented risk. Active immunization of pregnant women, however, could provide increased breadth and duration to the transplacental passive immunity in the newborn.Interferon-inducing agents could potentially provide broad spectrum antiviral protection, but the extent and duration of their effectiveness are unknowns.Certain chemical agents have been shown to have prophylactic and therapeutic effects against a limited number of clinically severe viral diseases. Finally, limited data suggest that climatic control in places of public gathering might be worth evaluating as a means of controlling the spread of viral respiratory infections.     

BACTERIAL AND CHEMICAL WARFARE—The Current Status

For fourteen years public attention has been focused so sharply on atomic weapons as to lose sight of other, less spectacular but equally significant advances in the art of warfare.In the shadows cast by brilliant research in nuclear physics are hidden startling advances in the field of chemical and biological weapons. These weapons, as now developed, are not only capable of producing mass casualties quite comparable with those of atomic bombs, but they also possess certain advantages which may make them the weapons of choice for an unscrupulous enemy.If war should come, it is the medical profession which will have the sole responsibility for protecting the citizens of California against these weapons, and we can therefore delay no longer in acquainting ourselves with their potentialities and characteristics.In this task, we are working under two serious handicaps. The first is that our classical medical training affords little appreciation of the real danger, and the second is the cloak of secrecy surrounding the entire subject.     

Current Status of Alligator sinensis

1IntroductionAlligatorsinensisisakindofvaluablebutrareanimalwhichisdistributedonlyinChi-na.Chinesealligatorsliveinreservoirsandpondsinthehillsidesbetweenthemiddleandup-perreachesoftheYangtzeRiver.Historically,thedistributionareaoftheChinesealligatorsreached34.5millionhectaresandthenumberreachedthelevelofbeing"tooeasytogetanddisgust"duringtheWesternHanDynasty(206B.C.-24A.D.).Withtheinterruptionofhumanactivities,thedistributionareaofA.sinensisisdecreasingcontinuouslyandthenumberisreducinggr…     

Protein Particulate Detection Issues in Biotherapeutics Development—Current Status

Formation of aggregates and particulates in biopharmaceutical formulation continues to be one of the major quality concerns in biotherapeutics development. The presence of large quantities of aggregates is believed to be one of the causes of unwanted immunogenic responses. Protein particulates can form in a wide range of sizes and shapes. Therefore, a comprehensive characterization of particulates in biologics formulation continues to be challenging. The quantity of small size aggregates (e.g., dimer) in a stable biologics formulation is well controlled using precision analytical techniques (e.g., high-performance liquid chromatography). Particulate in clinical and commercial formulations is monitored using visual inspection and subvisible particulate counting assays. While visual inspection (by human eye or automated systems) is intended to detect particulates (intrinsic and extrinsic) of ~100 μm or larger, the subvisible counting methods cover smaller size ranges down to 10 μm. It is well recognized that research of particulates in the submicron (<1 μm) and low-micron (1–10 μm) ranges may provide important clues to understand the mechanism of particulate formation. The recent years have seen a significant increase in the development of newer technologies for more comprehensive characterization of particulates. This is attributed to increased awareness in this field of research over the past 5 years, stimulated by scholarly articles, commentaries, and robust discussions in various forums. This article provides an overview of emerging detection technologies that provide complementary characterization data encompassing a wider size range of particulates. It also discusses their advantages and limitations in the context of applications in biotherapeutics development.KEY WORDS: biotherapeutics, formulation development, laser diffraction, particulate matter, protein aggregation     

Current Status of Echinoderm Genome Analysis - What do we Know?

Echinoderms have long served as model organisms for a variety of biological research, especially in the field of developmental biology. Although the genome of the purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus has been sequenced, it is the only echinoderm whose whole genome sequence has been reported. Nevertheless, data is rapidly accumulating on the chromosomes and genomic sequences of all five classes of echinoderms, including the mitochondrial genomes and Hox genes. This blossoming new data will be essential for estimating the phylogenetic relationships among echinoderms, and also to examine the underlying mechanisms by which the diverse morphologies of echinoderms have arisen.     

Multiple Sclerosis—Current Etiological Concepts

An animal model for acute multiple sclerosis (ms) is experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (eae). eae is produced by intradermal injection of a protein component of central nervous system (cns) myelin. Ultrastructural studies of eae and of a peripheral nerve analog, experimental allergic neuritis (ean), have revealed an orderly sequence of cellular events leading to the destruction and removal of myelin with sparing of axons (primary demyelination). Acute ms has not been studied electron microscopically, but the ultrastructural similarities between ean and a case of acute Landry-Guillain-Barré syndrome, a primary demyelinating disease of the peripheral nervous system, suggest that a similar sequence of events might be found in acute ms. While the pathological findings support a cellmediated or delayed hypersensitivity response, there is also evidence for the pathogenetic role of circulating antibodies. Among such evidence is included the finding that sera from animals with eae and humans with acute ms rapidly produce a reversible block of complex (polysynaptic) electrical activity when applied to cns tissue cultures, which suggests a possible mechanism for transient symptoms in ms. Epidemiological and other studies link ms with a viral cause, although no direct evidence that ms is caused by a virus exists. Viral and immunological mechanisms are not mutually exclusive in considering pathogenetic possibilities for ms, for it can be postulated that a viral infection of the central nervous system acts as a triggering agent for a series of immune responses, including production of a bioelectric blocking antibody and demyelination mediated by sensitized cells, the combination of which ultimately produces the total clinical picture of ms.     

Impetigo—Bacteriologic Features and Renal Involvement

One hundred children with impetigo were studied with particular emphasis upon the organism causing the infection and associated renal complications. In 50 per cent of cases, Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus grew on cultures of material from the lesions, and evidence of recent infection with this organism as shown by an elevation of antistreptolysin O titer was present in an additional 17 per cent of cases.Acute glomerulonephritis developed in three of the 66 children with bacteriologic or serologic evidence of streptococcal infection. Four other children in this group and nine children with staphylococcal impetigo had unexplained microscopic hematuria.All children with nephritis already had evidence of the disease when first seen. In most of those with unexplained hematuria, this condition was detected at the first visit. Hematuria developed in others while they were receiving systemic antibiotics. The significance of isolated microscopic hematuria is uncertain, but is seen often in association with cutaneous infection with both staphylococcus and streptococcus. Microscopic hematuria as defined is apparently not prevented by antibiotic therapy.If acute glomerulonephritis that follows streptococcal cutaneous infection is to be prevented, streptococcal impetigo will have to be treated promptly after onset.     

The Current Status of Preclinical Endocrine Education in U.S. Medical Schools

ObjectiveTo characterize the current landscape of preclinical medical endocrine education in U.S. allopathic medical schools.MethodsU.S. endocrine curriculum directors were asked to voluntarily complete a 16-question email survey surveying the status of endocrine preclinical education at their medical school.ResultsSixty-nine of 155 (45%) endocrine block director respondents completed the online survey between July 2021 and September 2021. A larger incoming class, a longer duration of the endocrine curriculum, and the offering of a separate endocrine curriculum (ie apart from the teaching of other organ systems) were each independently associated with an increased number of faculty teaching the course. Schools that used a gland-/organ-based curriculum only and those that used a combination of gland-/organ-based curriculum with topic-based curriculum differed significantly in their use of large lectures, small groups, and several curriculum components, including point of care glucose testing, continuous glucose monitoring, and insulin pumps.ConclusionThis survey study reports the current landscape of preclinical endocrine education in the United States and describes opportunities to improve interest in pursuing endocrinology as a career.     

Negative regulators of haemopoiesis—Current advances

The overall control of the haemopoietic system is ultimately articulated at the level of stem cell proliferative regulation. An understanding of the control processes involved is central to a full understanding of the regulation of haemopoiesis in health and disease. We describe here the recent advances in understanding of the negative regulation of primitive haemopoietic cells. The possible involvement of inhibitory factors in the development of haemopoietic malignancy is discussed. The known biological functions of many of these inhibitory molecules suggests a therapeutic potential for negative regulators.     

Percutaneous Renal Stone Manipulation—A Nonoperative Alternative

Nephrostomy tube tracts, established operatively or percutaneously, can provide access to stones in the upper urinary tract. A variety of rigid or flexible urologic instruments can be used to percutaneously disintegrate or extract calculi, thus sparing a patient an operative procedure. This is most important in the case of high-risk patients, those previously operated upon or those who have active nephrolithiasis, in whom recurrent stones are prone to form. Our early experience in percutaneous renal stone disintegration and stone manipulation enabled us to remove most (in four patients) or all (again in four patients) calculi in nine patients. The procedure offers lower morbidity, shorter hospital stay and earlier return to employment than conventional operative stone procedures.     

FEMALE INFERTILITY—The Present Status of Treatment

Few barren women have gynecological abnormalities sufficient to prevent conception. Hormonal stimulation appears to be effective in some cases; and sometimes pregnancy follows instrumental treatment, possibly as a result of dislodgement or displacement of polyps in the process. There is nebulous evidence that psychogenic factors may play a part in infertility.If the fallopian tubes are occluded, operation to restore patency is not likely to clear the way to conception.