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1.
1.  Interactions of cockroaches with 4 different predator species were recorded by videography. Some predators, especially spiders, struck from relatively short distances and usually contacted a cockroach prior to initiation of escape (Table 1, Fig. 3). This touch frequently occurred on an antenna. Cockroaches turned away from the side on which an antenna was touched.
2.  We then measured the success of escape from predators for cockroaches with either cerci or antennae ablated. Only antennal removal caused a significant decrease in the success of escape from spiders (Fig. 5).
3.  With controlled stimuli, cockroaches responded reliably to abrupt touch of antennae, legs or body (Fig. 6). Responses resembled wind-elicited escape: they consisted of a short latency turn (away from the stimulus) followed by running (Figs. 7, 8). However, lesions show that touchevoked escape does not depend on the giant interneuron system (Table 2).
4.  Following section of one cervical connective, cockroaches continued to respond to touching either antenna, but often turned inappropriately toward, rather than away from, stimuli applied to the antenna contralateral to the severed connective (Table 3, Fig. 10).
5.  For certain types of predators touch may be a primary cue by which cockroaches detect predatory attack. Descending somatosensory pathways for escape are distinct from the GI system.
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2.
The parasitic wasp Ampulex compressa stings a cockroach Periplaneta americana in the neck, toward the head ganglia (the brain and subesophageal ganglion). In the present study, our aim was to identify the head ganglion that is the target of the venom and the mechanisms by which the venom blocks the thoracic portion of the escape neuronal circuitry. Because the escape responses elicited by a wind stimulus in brainless and sham-operated animals were similar, we propose that the venom effect is on the subesophageal ganglion. Apparently, the subesophageal ganglion modulates the thoracic portion of the escape circuit. Recordings of thoracic interneuron responses to the input from the abdominal giant interneurons showed that the thoracic interneurons receive synaptic drive from these interneurons in control and in stung animals. Unlike normal cockroaches, which use both fast and slow motoneurons for producing rapid escape movements, stung animals activate only the slow motoneuron. However, we show that in stung animals, the fast motoneuron still can be recruited with bath application of pilocarpine, a muscarinic agonist. These results indicate that the descending control from the subesophageal ganglion is presumably exerted on the premotor thoracic interneurons to motoneurons connection of the thoracic escape circuitry. Accepted: 19 December 1998  相似文献   

3.
1.  The oscillations of the tympanal membrane of Locusta migratoria were analysed by combined laser vibrometry and interferometry. Simultaneously the activity in the tympanal nerve was recorded extracellularly. The animal was stimulated by sound pulses and one of the hindlegs was passively moved in a sinusoidal manner simulating stridulation. These stimuli were applied separately and in combination.
2.  Sound stimulation elicited high-frequency membrane oscillations, whereas leg movements induced slow rhythmic membrane displacements. During combined sound and movement stimulation these two types of oscillations superimposed without mutual interference.
3.  The tympanal nerve responded to sound with well synchronized receptor activity. The leg movement elicited less synchronized, phase-coupled activity. During combined sound and movement stimulation the responses to the two types of stimuli interfered strongly.
4.  The activity patterns of single receptor fibres and auditory interneurons were reanalysed from this point of view. The extent of synchronization of the receptors is found to be the major difference between the sound-induced and the movement-induced activation of the auditory system. A filter mechanism is postulated, consisting in the activation of some higher order auditory interneurons only by well-synchronized presynaptic activity, such as is induced by steeply rising sound pulses.
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4.
1.  Some units in the lateral ocellar nerves of the locust,Locusta migratoria, are influenced transsynaptically by the activity of ascending fibres in the thoracic connectives and therefore may be efferent to the afferent ocellar system.
2.  A variety of sensory inputs excite the ocellar nerve units, including illumination of the compound eyes, active and passive movement of the wings, wind stimuli to the thorax and sound.
3.  Most ocellar interneurons are influenced transsynaptically by electrical stimulation of the cervical connectives. L-neurons are depolarized and the components of their response to a rectangular light pulse are changed in amplitude. Only a few S-neurons could be examined. All of them were excited directly or indirectly.
4.  The descending ocellar interneurons (DN's) are influenced by stimulation of the contralateral connective, perhaps via efference to the ocellus or to ocellar L-cells.
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5.
In this paper, I have examined the behavioral functions of feedback loops between the cockroach (Periplaneta americana) giant interneurons (GIs) and the flight thoracic rhythm generator.
1.  During sequences of flight-like activity, I have recorded from identified giant interneurons from the dorsal (dGIs) or the ventral (vGIs) group and stimulated them either with current pulses or with wind stimuli delivered to the cerci.
2.  Removal of the dGIs' activity which normally occurs during natural flight reduced both the wingbeat frequency and flight duration, and increased the variability of the wingbeat frequency (Fig. 6). Intracellular rhythmic stimulation of a single dGI during flight increased the wingbeat frequency and the duration of flight (Figs. 7, 8). The wind sensitivity of the dGIs was unchanged during flight compared with at rest (Fig. 2). A single short burst of spikes in a dGI had complex effects on the flight muscle recording but apparently did not reset the flight rhythm (Fig. 9). These results suggest that the rhythmic activation of the dGIs during natural light participates in the control of the wingbeat frequency and the flight duration (Fig. 12).
3.  In contrast to the dGIs, the vGIs became significantly less sensitive to wind during flight (Fig. 3). Stimulation of one of the vGIs (GI1) with 10 spikes at roughly 180/s during flight evokes immediate cessation of flight (Figs. 10, 11). Given that the vGI activity can stop flight, the inhibition imposed on the ventral group during flight appears to be designed to prevent this group from interfering with the flight program (Fig. 12).
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6.
1.  Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (ipsps) produced by two classes of interneurons, CC (contralateral and caudal projecting) and lateral interneurons, were tested for strychnine sensitivity using paired intracellular recordings in the lamprey spinal cord. The ipsps were partially blocked by 0.2–0.5 M strychnine and were completely blocked by 5 M strychnine. Thus, the ipsps may be glycinergic.
2.  These interneurons are key participants in a proposed circuit model for fictive swimming. A connectionisttype computer simulation of the model demonstrated that the cycle period of the network increased with decreasing ipsp strength.
3.  Application of strychnine (0.1–0.5 M) to the spinal cord during fictive swimming induced by an excitatory amino acid increased cycle period, consistent with previous reports, but at odds with stimulation predictions.
4.  Strychnine also produced slow rhythmic modulation of fictive swimming (period = 12 s) which maintained left-right alternation and rostral-caudal coordination. Auto- and cross-correlation analyses revealed that the slow modulation was present in a weaker form in most control preparations during fictive swimming.
5.  Since the proposed model for the swimming pattern generator in the lamprey spinal cord does not predict the observed speeding with strychnine, nor the slow modulatory rhythm, it appears to be deficient in its present formulation.
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7.
1.  The physiology and morphology of olfactory interneurons in the brain of larval Manduca sexta were studied using intracellular recording and staining techniques. Antennal olfactory receptors were stimulated with volatile substances from plants and with pure odorants. Neurons responding to the stimuli were investigated further to reveal their response specificities, dose-response characteristics, and morphology.
2.  We found no evidence of specific labeled-lines among the odor-responsive interneurons, as none responded exclusively to one plant odor or pure odorant; most olfactory interneurons were broadly tuned in their response spectra. This finding is consistent with an across-fiber pattern of odor coding.
3.  Mechanosensory and olfactory information are integrated at early stages of central processing, appearing in the responses of some local interneurons restricted to the primary olfactory nucleus in the brain, the larval antennal center (LAC).
4.  The responses of LAC projection neurons and higher-order protocerebral interneurons to a given odor were more consistent than the responses of LAC local interneurons.
5.  The LAC appears to be functionally subdivided, as both local and projection neurons had arborizations in specific parts of the LAC, but none had dendrites throughout the LAC.
6.  The mushroom bodies and the lateral protocerebrum contain neurons that respond to olfactory stimulation.
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8.
In response female pheromone the male gypsy moth flies a zigzagging path upwind to locate the source of odor. He determines wind direction visually. To learn more about the mechanism underlying this behavior, we studied descending interneurons with dye-filled micro-electrodes. We studied the interneuronal responses to combinations of pheromone and visual stimuli.
1.  We recorded 5 neurons whose directionally selective visual responses to wide field pattern movement were amplified by pheromone (Figs. 2–6).
2.  The activity of the above neurons was more closely correlated with the position of the moving pattern than with its velocity (Fig. 4).
3.  One neuron showed no clearly directional visual response and no response to pheromone. Yet in the presence of pheromone it showed directionally selective visual responses (Fig. 6).
4.  We recorded 4 neurons whose directionally selective visual responses were not modulated by pheromone (Fig. 7), ruling out the possibility that the effect of the pheromone was simply to raise the activity of all visual neurons.
5.  Our results suggest that female pheromone amplifies some neural pathways mediating male optomotor responses, especially the directionally selective responses to the transverse movement of the image, both below and above the animal.
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9.
1.  We studied the response of plurisegmental interneurons in the suboesophageal ganglionic mass of female spiders (Cupiennius salei) to male vibratory courtship signals.
2.  The opisthosomal vibrations (low frequency component) and the pedipalpal percussions (high frequency component) are processed in parallel by interneuron type I and type II, respectively (Figs. 3, 7).
3.  Type III, IV and V interneurons represent the macrostructure of the male courtship signals (Figs. 8, 9, 10), i.e. the beginning and the end of a series (type III, V) or the end of the series only (type IV). The macrostructure is known to influence the response probability of the female. The spontaneous bursting activity of a type VI neuron undergoes slow and long lasting changes upon stimulation with natural courtship signals (Fig. 11).
4.  Many interneurons responded to natural signals but not to behaviourally effective computer models. This is presumably due to the lack of spectral complexity of the model compared to natural signals. Differences in the natural conspecific and heterospecific signals, however, are represented by the neuronal response (Fig. 3).
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10.
1.  Experiments were designed to examine phase-dependent influences of the wing stretch receptor (SR) afferents on the central oscillator in the flight system of the locust. Reasons were also sought for the failure of earlier workers to find phase-dependent influences of SR activity on the flight oscillator.
2.  In preparations with the hindwing sensory nerves left intact, electrical stimulation of the two forewing SRs caused an immediate increase in oscillator frequency reaching a maximum of 16–20 Hz as described by Pearson et al. (1983). After cutting the hindwing sensory nerves, the same stimulation increased the frequency from 6–8 Hz to 12–14 Hz. The absolute reduction in cycle period caused by the stimulation was reduced from 15–25 ms to 10–15 ms as a result of cutting the hindwing sensory nerves.
3.  Stimulation of two forewing SRs in completely deafferented preparations in bursts occurring at a constant rate could entrain the flight oscillator. During entrainment, depressor spikes occurred close to the time of the stimulus. The flight oscillator could follow changes in the entrainment frequency, usually only up to 1 Hz (10% cycle period) compared to 4–6 Hz (40–50% cycle period) seen by Pearson et al. (1983). Entrainment could still be elicited when the chordotonal organ afferents were co-stimulated.
4.  Bilateral stimulation of the hindwing SRs could also entrain the central flight oscillator over a similar range of frequencies as was observed for forewing SR stimulation.
5.  Stimulation of a lateral pair of SRs (one forewing and the ipsilateral hindwing SR) was observed to produce 11 entrainment in only one out of fifteen animals. However, a phase-dependent influence on the oscillator rhythm could be demonstrated by stimulation time-locked to the oscillator output (depressor EMG). SR stimulation close to the time of the depressor spike increased the oscillator frequency and prolonged the duration of rhythmic activity. Stimulation occurring approximately midway between depressor bursts had no obvious effect on the frequency or duration of the oscillator rhythm.
6.  The only conditions under which a slow increase in oscillator frequency could be produced by stimulation of a lateral pair of SRs was when the SR stimulus frequency was set much higher than the central oscillator frequency. It is concluded that the failure of earlier workers to observe phase-dependent effects of SR stimulation on the oscillator frequency was due to stimulation of a lateral rather than segmental pair of SRs and the method they used in their attempt to demonstrate phase-dependence. Their observation of a slow phase-independent increase in flight frequency possibly resulted from the high SR stimulus frequencies employed.
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11.
Deafferentation experiments during postembryonic development show morphological and/or physiological changes of receptor fibers and of identified auditory interneurons in the CNS of the locusts Locusta migratoria and Schistocerca gregaria after unilateral ablation of one tympanic organ either in the larva or the adult animal.
1.  In Locusta migratoria, 5 days after deafferentation, intact, contralateral receptor fibers had sprouted collaterals in the frontal acoustic neuropil of the metathoracic ganglion (Figs. 1, 2). Collateral sprouts were only rarely found in Schistocerca gregaria.
2.  After about 20 days the deafferented auditory interneurons receive new inputs from the contralateral receptors (Figs. 3, 5, 7, 10). This largely restores their thresholds and intensity/response functions. Collaterals from the first order interneurons cross the midline to the contralateral neuropil (BSN1 neuron, Fig. 4), which is never seen in intact animals. By contrast, in the TN1 neuron no consistent morphological change due to the deafferentation could be found (Fig. 6).
3.  Interneurons of higher order (AN1, TN3 neuron in locusts) regain their response pattern (Fig. 7) without morphological changes (Fig. 9). Bilateral recordings show that the deafferented interneurons respond more weakly to auditory stimuli than the intact neuron, but the response to vibration stimuli remains unchanged (TN3 neuron, Fig. 8).
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12.
1.  In the tortoise the capability of the spinal cord of generating rhythmic motor activity and of modulating reflex transmission depending on the motor cycle was investigated.
2.  In the intact animal co-ordinated locomotion was only observed if the feet had ground contact. Without ground contact only rhythmic struggling movements occurred. After spinalization some peripheral input was needed to initiate and sustain struggling movements in the air; the pattern of the movements was changed but not the frequency. After paralyzation the capability of generating a rhythmic activity was distinctly depressed in the spinal tortoise. The frequency of a rhythmic activity which could be induced in such a preparation by peripheral stimulation was very low, even after premedication with nialamide and DOPA.
3.  In the spinal paralyzed preparation during rhythmic motor activity a modulation of the membrane potential of motoneurones occurred with phases of depolarization and hyperpolarization. The latter at least partly were due to synaptic inhibition.
4.  In the spinal paralyzed preparation the transmission in excitatory reflex pathways from peripheral flexor reflex afferents (FRA) to motoneurones was phasically modulated during rhythmic motor activity in the way that the transmission was facilitated during the active phase of a motoneurone pool and inhibited during the reciprocal phase. In the inhibitory FRA pathways partly a particular kind of modulation of the transmission during the different phases was observed.
5.  The results indicate that the rhythmic motor activity in the spinal paralyzed tortoise which largely matched the activity found in cats, resembles in some aspects locomotor activity and therefore by analogy with findings in cats and turtles may be denoted as fictive locomotion.
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13.
1.  Two campaniform sensilla (CS) on the proximal tibia of a hindleg monitor strains set up when a locust prepares to kick, or when a resistance is met during locomotion. The connections made by these afferents with interneurones and leg motor neurones have been investigated and correlated with their role in locomotion.
2.  When flexor and extensor tibiae muscles cocontract before a kick afferents from both campaniform sensilla spike at frequencies up to 650 Hz. They do not spike when the tibia is extended actively or passively unless it encounters a resistance. The fast extensor tibiae motor neurone (FETi) then produces a sequence of spikes in a thrusting response with feedback from the CS afferents maintaining the excitation. Destroying the two campaniform sensilla abolishes the re-excitation of FETi.
3.  Mechanical stimulation of a single sensillum excites extensor and flexor tibiae motor neurones. The single afferent from either CS evokes EPSPs in the fast extensor motor neurone and in certain fast flexor tibiae motor neurones which follow each sensory spike with a central latency of 1.6 ms that suggests direct connections. The input from one receptor is powerful enough to evoke spikes in FETi. The slow extensor motor neurone does not receive a direct input, although it is excited and slow flexor tibiae motor neurones are unaffected.
4.  Some nonspiking interneurones receive direct connections from both afferents in parallel with the motor neurones. One of these interneurones excites the slow and fast extensor tibiae motor neurones probably by disinhibition. Hyperpolarization of this interneurone abolishes the excitatory effect of the CS on the slow extensor motor neurone and reduces the excitation of the fast. The disinhibitory pathway may involve a second nonspiking interneurone with direct inhibitory connections to both extensor motor neurones. Other nonspiking interneurones distribute the effects of the CS afferents to motor neurones of other joints.
5.  The branches of the afferents from the campaniform sensilla and those of the motor neurones and interneurones in which they evoke EPSPs project to the same regions of neuropil in the metathoracic ganglion.
6.  The pathways described will ensure that more force is generated by the extensor muscle when the tibia is extended against a resistance. The excitatory feedback to the extensor and flexor motor neurones will also contribute to their co-contraction when generating the force necessary for a kick.
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14.
1.  Muscles of the posterior cardiac plate (pcp) and pyloric regions in the stomach of Squilla are innervated by motoneurons located in the stomatogastric ganglion (STG). The pattern of innervation of various muscles in these regions was determined using electrophysiological methods.
2.  The dilator muscles are singly or doubly innervated by the pyloric dilator neurons (PDs). The constrictor muscles are singly or doubly innervated by the pcp neuron (PCP) or the pyloric neurons (PYs). These muscles are sequentially activated by pcp-pyloric motor outputs produced by the PCP, PY, and PD. All muscles can generate an all-or-nothing spike.
3.  The constrictor muscles generate spikes followed by depolarizing afterpotentials which lead to a sustained depolarization with repetitive spikes. The PYs can entrain rhythmic spike discharges of these muscles.
4.  The spike of muscles remains unchanged by bath application of tetrodotoxin (10-7 M) to suppress neuronal impulse activities, but it is blocked by Mn2+ (10 mM).
5.  The constrictor muscle isolated from the STG displays an endogenous property of spontaneous membrane oscillation that produces a train of spikes. Brief depolarizing or hyperpolarizing stimuli can trigger or terminate an oscillatory potential, respectively, and reset the subsequent rhythm.
6.  The possible functions of myogenicity under the control of discharges of motoneurons in the pyloric constrictor neuromuscular system are discussed.
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15.
1.  Auditory stimuli consisting of tape-recorded natural sounds were used in a study of 129 neurons in Field L of the caudal neostriatum in the forebrain of curarized starlings (Sturnus vulgaris).
2.  An extensive program of stimuli comprising many different signals (109 sound elements) was devised in order to permit identification of even very highly specialized neurons.
3.  As a rule, the time courses of the neuronal responses parallel those of certain parameters or parameter combinations of the sound stimuli. The responses of a few very specialized neurons, however, did not reflect any distinguishable temporal substructure within the effective sounds.
4.  64 neuons were examined with respect to the number of stimuli, out of a sample of 80 sound elements, eliciting a response. 24 of these neurons responded to less than 10 of the 80 natural sounds. These include neurons responding only to a single sound or to sounds of a single type.
5.  30 of the 64 neurons responded most strongly, or exclusively, to sounds of a single type.
6.  The criterion determining whether a neuron responds to a given sound may be a single parameter, a combination of parameters, or the entire complex of parameters describing the sound.
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16.
Intracellular recordings were carried out on locust flight motoneurons after hemisection of individual thoracic ganglia. With the exception of minimal surgical manipulations, the animals were intact and able to perform tethered flight. Analysis of the synaptic drive recorded in the motoneurons during flight motor activity revealed the extent to which ganglion hemisection influenced the premotor rhythm generating network.
1.  Hemisection of the mesothoracic ganglion (Fig. 2) as well as hemisection of both the mesothoracic and the prothoracic ganglia (Fig. 3) had no significant effects on the pattern of synaptic input to the flight motoneurons. Thus the rhythm generating premotor network does not depend on commissural information transfer in the mesothoracic and the prothoracic ganglia. This conclusion was supported by experiments in which more extensive surgical isolations of thoracic ganglia were carried out (Fig. 5).
2.  Removal of input from wing receptors (deafferentation) in addition to hemisection of the mesothoracic ganglion (Fig. 4) resulted in rhythmic and coordinated oscillations of the motoneuron membrane potential which were indistinguishable from those observed in deafferented animals with all ganglia intact.
3.  Hemisection of the metathoracic ganglion had more pronounced effects on the patterns of synaptic drive to the flight motoneurons and their spike discharge. Rhythmic activity which was often subthreshold could, however, still be recorded following a metathoracic split (Fig. 6).
4.  No rhythmic synaptic input was observed after hemisection of both mesothoracic and metathoracic ganglia (Fig. 7).
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17.
1.  An isolated claw-ganglion preparation of the crayfish is described in which reflex activity is maintained for eight hours or more.
2.  Intracellular recording and cobalt injection have made it possible to locate and characterize the claw motoneurons. Soma recordings show attenuated axon spikes of 5–10 mV amplitude and subthreshold potentials of the same magnitude.
3.  The fast closer excitor (FCE) receives subthreshold excitation in parallel with the slow closer excitor (SCE) and the opener inhibitor (OI) even though it seldom fires.
4.  IPSP's are recorded in the opener excitor (OE) concurrent with OI spikes.
5.  Cobalt injection reveals a parallel dendritic structure among the three synergists FCE, SCE and OI, and a distinctly different dendritic distribution for OE. The soma siza ranking: OI<>FCE = SCE is apparent.
6.  The results are discussed and compared with other arthropod systems with regard to the relation between soma size and electrical functions, distribution of somata and dendrites, and effects of cobalt on electrical functioning. A conflict with previous work on this system is discussed.
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18.
1.  Coordinated movements of the wings during flight in the locust result from coordinated activity of flight neurons in the thoracic ganglia. Many flight interneurons and motoneurons fire synchronous bursts of action potentials during the expression of the flight motor pattern. The mechanisms which underlie this synchronous firing were investigated in a deafferented preparation of Locusta migratoria.
2.  Simultaneous intracellular recordings were taken from flight neurons in the mesothoracic ganglion using glass microelectrodes filled with fluorescent dye.
3.  Three levels of synchronous activity between synergistic motoneurons and between the right and left partners of bilaterally symmetrical pairs of interneurons were observed: bursting which was loosely in phase but which showed little correlation between the temporal parameters of individual bursts in the two neurons; bursting which showed synchrony of the beginning and end of bursts; and bursts which showed highly synchronous spike-for-spike activity.
4.  Direct interactions between the neurons had little or no part to play in maintaining any of the levels of synchrony, even in instances of very close synchrony (spikes in different neurons occurring within 1 ms of each other). Highly synchronous firing was a consequence of common synaptic input impinging on neurons with similar morphological and physiological properties.
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19.
1.  Most Purkinje neurons show ongoing spike activity. In approximately 75%, this activity disappeared after peduncle lesion and in some of these the activity stopped when water flow over the gills was interrupted. Approximately one-fourth of Purkinje cells (PC's) showed continuing ongoing activity after afferent input was abolished.
2.  Stimulation of spinal cord elicited both simple spikes, mainly in ipsilateral PC's, and some complex responses (via climbing fibers) usually contralateral and of longer latency than the simple spikes.
3.  Tactile stimulation of skin and flexion of tail or fins, also lateral line stimulation by a water stream, evoked bursts of spikes in PC-s. Input was by mossy fibers and mechanoreceptive fields were large.
4.  Stimulation of vestibular nerve produced both simple and complex responses in PC's. Auditory stimuli were most effective at 800–1200 Hz in eliciting responses via mossy fibers. Responses to sound were phasic changes in ongoing frequency, bursts followed by inhibition or on-off excitation.
5.  Responses to visual stimuli were recorded in granule cells and Purkinje cells, also in mossy axons. Many PC's showed excitatory-inhibitory sequences; a few climbing fiber responses were recorded. The mossy fiber visual input is from optic tectum relay.
6.  Some PC's were activated by two or three sensory modalities.
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20.
In a task designed to simulate olfactory-guided foraging, the ability of squirrel monkeys to discriminate an artificial 12-component odorant from 3-, 6-, 9- or 11- component submixtures was investigated. A combination of factors was found to contribute to the animals' performance:
1.  Discriminability generally decreased as the number of components in the submixture increased.
2  Submixtures did not contribute equally to mixture perception, and one component in particular (cineole) disproportionately influenced stimulus discriminability.
3.  Interactive effects between submixtures resulted in marked deviations from the general pattern of discriminability.
4.  Changes in the relative concentration of submixtures could also influence discriminability.
5.  Finally, individual differences in responsiveness to particular stimuli were apparent.
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