Aerobic Methanotrophic Communities in the Bottom Sediments of Lake Baikal

The results of the first systematical investigation into the aerobic methanotrophic communities inhabiting the bottom sediments of Lake Baikal have been reported. Use of the radioisotopic method revealed methane consumption in 12 10- to 50-cm-long sediment cores. The maximum methane consumption rates (495–737 µl/(dm³ day) were recorded in sediments in the regions of hydrothermal vents and oil and gas occurrence. Methane consumption was most active in the surface layers of the sediments (0–4 cm); it decreased with the sediment depth and became negligible or absent at depths below 20 cm. The number of methanotrophic bacteria usually ranged from 100 to 1000 cells/cm³ of sediment and reached 1 million cells/cm³ in the regions of oil and gas occurrence. The seventeen enrichment cultures obtained were represented mainly by morphotype II methanotrophs. Phylogenetic analysis of the enrichment cultures in terms of the amino acid sequence of the α subunit of the membrane-bound methane monooxygenase (MMO) revealed the predominance of methanotrophs of the genus Methylocystis. The results obtained suggest the presence of an active aerobic methanotrophic community in Lake Baikal.__________Translated from Mikrobiologiya, Vol. 74, No. 4, 2005, pp. 562–571.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Gainutdinova, Eshinimaev, Tsyrenzhapova, Dagurova, Suzina, Khmelenina, Namsaraev, Trotsenko.     

Bacterial Processes of the Methane Cycle in Bottom Sediments of Lake Baikal

The activity of methanogenic and methanotrophic bacteria was evaluated in bottom sediments of Lake Baikal. Methane concentration in Baikal bottom sediments varied from 0.0053 to 81.7 ml/dm³. Bacterial methane was produced at rates of 0.0004–534.7 l CH₄/(dm³ day) and oxidized at rates of 0.005–1180 l CH₄/(dm³ day). Peak methane production and oxidation were observed in Frolikha Bay near a methane vent. Methane was emitted into water at rates of 49.2–4340 l CH₄/(m² day). Rates of bacterial methane oxidation in near-bottom water layers ranged from 0.002 to 1.78 l/(l day). Methanogens and methanotrophs were found to play an important role in the carbon cycle through all layers of sediments, particularly in the areas of methane vent and gas-hydrate occurrence.     

典型草地土壤好氧甲烷氧化的微生物生态过程

【目的】针对我国甘肃三个典型生态区草地土壤(玛曲MQ、临泽LZ和环县HX),研究其甲烷氧化潜力、甲烷氧化菌(methane-oxidizingbacteria,MOB)丰度及可能存在的群落分异规律。【方法】通过原位分析、室内高浓度甲烷模拟培养三种典型土壤及实时荧光定量、高通量测序的方法研究甲烷氧化菌标靶基因pmoA序列的组成及其丰度变化规律。【结果】三种典型草地土壤的原位甲烷氧化菌的丰度存在显著差异,表现为MQ>HX>LZ,其数量范围为为0.18–6.86×10^7g/d.w.s.;甲烷氧化潜力也表现出类似规律,其通量为109–169mg/(m^2·h);甲烷氧化潜力与原位土壤中甲烷氧化菌丰度有正相关。三种草地土壤甲烷氧化菌存在明显的空间异质性,采用高通量测序的方法,发现三种草地原位土壤中的优势类群为USCγ(Upland Soil Cluster gamma,USCγ);然而,室内高浓度甲烷氧化过程中,传统的甲烷氧化菌均发生明显增加,MQ土壤中TypeⅡ的Methylocystis为优势类群,而LZ和HX土壤的优势类群均为TypeⅠ型Methylosarcina。【结论】这些研究结果表明,我国甘肃典型草地土壤中也存在难培养的大气甲烷氧化菌和经典的可培养甲烷氧化菌,这些微生物极可能氧化极低浓度的大气甲烷,也可能利用闭蓄于土壤中的高浓度甲烷生长。未来应采用先进技术原位观测大气甲烷氧化过程并分离相应微生物类群,研究草地土壤甲烷氧化菌地理分异规律及其环境驱动机制。     

云贵高原典型湖滨湿地好氧甲烷氧化细菌群落结构和数量的时空动态

湖泊生态系统排放的甲烷（CH₄）大部分来自湖滨湿地,好氧甲烷氧化细菌（methane-oxidizing bacteria,MOB）在减轻CH₄从湖泊系统向大气的排放中起着至关重要的作用。湖滨湿地好氧MOB群落分布及其影响因素尚不清楚。采用qPCR、末端限制性片段长度多态性（T-RFLP）等方法,分四季对贵州草海湖滨湿地宽敞水域至落干区沉积物中好氧MOB群落组成和数量进行了研究。草海湖滨湿地沉积中甲烷氧化单加氧酶功能基因（pomA）丰度较高,在1.78×10⁷-2.73×10⁸拷贝数/g干沉积物之间,好氧MOB由I型（Methylococcus and Methylobacter）和II型（Methylosinus）组成,I型主要分布在宽敞水域（长期淹水区）,而干湿过渡区和偶尔积水区主要为II型,呈现出明显的空间变化,推测湖滨湿地长期淹水区甲烷的氧化由I型主导,而相对干旱的区域II型主导,而这种差异可能是导致湖滨湿地甲烷排放高度异质性的一个重要因素。研究结果对揭示湖滨湿地甲烷排放时空异质性的微生物生态机制奠定了基础。     

Precopulatory mate guarding in Harpacticella inopinata Sars (Copepoda: Harpacticoida) from Lake Baikal

Precopulatory mate guarding is reported for the first time from a freshwater harpacticoid, Harpacticella inopinata. Adult males were observed grasping onto juvenile females from the third copepodid stage onwards, but most commonly with the fifth copepodid. This behaviour is interpreted as a plesiomorphic trait of the family Harpacticidae.     

A new interstitial cyclopoid copepod from a sandy beach on the western shore of Lake Baikal,Siberia

A new species of cyclopoid copepod, Diacyclops biceri sp. nov., is described from Lake Baikal. It was found in the interstitial water of a sandy beach at Buchta Peschanaya on the western shore of the central basin of Baikal. The new species is unique in possessing 2-segmented endopods in swimming legs 3 and 4. Swimming legs 2 to 4 have 3-segmented exopods. The slender body form, the lack of the antennal exopodal seta, and the presence of a secondary pseudosomite anterior to the genital double somite of the adult female are interpreted as adaptations to the interstitial habitat. The harpacticoid Epactophanes richardi Mrazek was found in the same interstitial habitat as D. biceri.     

贵州阿哈湖水库沉积物中甲烷氧化菌分布与功能

甲烷氧化菌是一类能够以甲烷作为唯一碳源和能量维持生存的微生物,其活动与生态系统中物质循环及能量流动密切相关。【目的】了解阿哈湖水库沉积物中甲烷氧化菌群落结构及代谢功能。【方法】采用宏基因组技术对环湖沉积物和湖心沉积物进行研究。【结果】水库沉积物中主要的好氧甲烷氧化菌是甲基杆菌属(Methylobacter) (0.37%)和甲基单胞菌属(Methylomonas) (0.12%),主要的厌氧甲烷氧化菌是Candidatus_Methylomirabilis (0.12%),属于NC10门细菌中的亚硝酸盐反硝化型厌氧甲烷氧化菌,其中好氧甲烷氧化菌的pmoA基因为6.16×10⁷ copies/g,反硝化型厌氧甲烷氧化菌的16S rRNA基因为2.84×10⁷ copies/g。4种代谢的功能基因多样性表现为氮代谢>碳代谢>硫代谢>甲烷代谢,基于京都基因和基因组百科全书(Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes, KEGG)基因库进行注释得到6大类功能,发现18条与碳(包括甲烷)、氮、硫代谢有关的完整代谢途径。主坐标分析(principal coordinates analysis, PCoA)显示环湖沉积物与湖心沉积物之间的甲烷氧化菌种类和功能存在显著差异。影响甲烷氧化菌分布的主要环境因子为氧化还原电位、电导率和硫酸根。【结论】阿哈湖水库甲烷氧化菌以Ⅰ型好氧甲烷氧化菌为主,甲烷氧化菌群落代谢途径丰富,Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型甲烷氧化菌在对O₂的适应性上有显著差异。相关研究可为湖泊水生态环境的保护和微生物资源的开发利用等方面提供一定的理论支撑。     

Feeding ecology of two planktonic sculpins, Comephorus baicalensis and Comephorus dybowskii (Comephoridae), in Lake Baikal

Planktonic sculpins (Comephorus baicalensis and Comephorus dybowskii) are endemic to Lake Baikal, and their migration behavior is characterized by their strange movements, which occur only vertically. We investigated their detailed food sources at each growth stage by stable isotope analyses in combination with stomach content analysis. At all growth stages, both fishes and amphipods were the main diet for C. baicalensis, whereas amphipods alone were the main diet for C. dybowskii. Our results indicate that the relationship between the two species shifts from a competitive interaction to a predator–prey interaction with the growth stages of C. baicalensis.     

Colorless sulfur bacteria <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thioploca</Emphasis> from different sites in Lake Baikal

The colorless sulfur bacteria Thioploca spp. found in Lake Baikal are probably a marker for the influx of subterranean mineralized fluids. Bacteria act as a biological filter; by consuming sulfide in their metabolism, they detoxicate it and maintain the purity of Lake Baikal’s water. The bacteria were investigated by various techniques. According to analysis of the 16S rRNA gene fragment, Thioploca sp. from Frolikha Bay, Baikal belongs to the clade of freshwater species found in Lake Biwa and Lake Constance; it is most closely related to Thioploca ingrica.     

内蒙古岗更诺尔湖泊退化情景下好氧甲烷氧化的微生物过程研究

【目的】内蒙古岗更诺尔湖退化为碱地、草地情景下,研究好氧甲烷氧化过程及其微生物群落的变化规律。【方法】针对湖泊沉积物及其退化后形成的碱地、草地土壤,在不同初始甲烷浓度下培养,研究其甲烷氧化速率,通过实时荧光定量PCR、高通量测序技术分析甲烷氧化菌的群落构成及其变化规律。【结果】湖泊退化过程中,沉积物和碱地的土壤理化性质、甲烷氧化速率变化规律基本一致,但与草地土壤有显著差异。在微生物属水平,甲烷氧化菌Methylococcus的丰度显著增加,在沉积物、碱地和草地中的丰度分别为19.2%、48.8%和78.3%,而Crenothrix的丰度明显降低,依次为54.7%、32.1%、和13.9%。进一步室内模拟不同初始浓度下甲烷氧化过程,发现沉积物中Crenothrix和Methylocaldum的增幅最大;碱地土壤中Methylococcus和Methylomonas的增幅远高于其他甲烷氧化菌;而在草地土壤中,Crenothrix增加高达7.81%,增幅达196倍。这些显著增加的微生物可能在不同浓度甲烷氧化过程中发挥了重要作用。【结论】湖泊退化过程中,甲烷氧化潜力降低。沉积物中的甲烷氧化菌发生了显著分异,Methylococcus逐渐成为碱地和草地的优势微生物,而Crenothrix则逐渐成为弱势类群。然而,草地土壤氧化高浓度甲烷过程中,数量上占弱势的Crenothrix迅速变为优势类群,可能发挥了重要作用。     

Diversity of Archaea in Bottom Sediments of the Discharge Areas With Oil- and Gas-Bearing Fluids in Lake Baikal

Using massively parallel sequencing (the Roche 454 platform) we have studied the diversity of archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences in oxic and anoxic sediments at six sites in Lake Baikal with oil- and gas-bearing fluids discharge. Archaeal communities appeared to be represented mainly by five phyla: Euryarchaeota, Crenarchaeota, Thaumarchaeota, Bathyarchaeota (miscellaneous Crenarchaeotic group), and Woesearchaeota (deep sea hydrothermal vent group 6). Among them we detected sequences of methanogens of the orders Methanomicrobiales, Methanosarsinales, Methanococcales, as well as representatives of the following uncultured archaeal lineages: Group C3, Marine Benthic Group D, and Terrestrial Miscellaneous Group. We have also identified sequences of ammonia-oxidizing archaea of the phyla Crenarchaeota and Thaumarchaeota. Phylogenetic analysis showed the presence ANME-2d-related sequences. However, the analysis of mcrA genes libraries has not revealed typical representatives of ANME groups. Comparison of amplicon libraries 16S rRNA gene fragments from different samples proved the widespread presence of previously detected Baikal archaeal lineages, which are members of the phylum Crenarchaeota and Thaumarchaeota (formerly Group C3 of Crenarchaeota).     

Microbial Biodiversity in the Water of Lake Baikal

An investigation of the microbial community of Lake Baikal by the methods of general and molecular microbiology showed that culturable bacterial strains are represented by various known genera. The lake water contains a great number of bacterial morphotypes, as revealed by electron microscopy, and a great diversity of nonculturable microorganisms belonging to different phylogenetic groups, as revealed by 16S rRNA gene fragment sequencing. The inference is made that the microbial community of Lake Baikal contains not only known species but also new bacterial species that are possibly endemic to the lake.     

氮沉降对温带森林土壤甲烷氧化菌的影响

大量研究显示氮沉降影响森林甲烷吸收量,但其中的微生物驱动机制仍缺乏研究。基于长白山典型温带森林长期氮沉降模拟实验平台样地,采用定量PCR和克隆测序技术,研究了长期施加不同形态氮((NH_4)_2SO_4、NH_4Cl和KNO_3)处理下森林土壤甲烷氧化菌的数量和群落组成随季节变化的特征。结果表明,夏季,森林土壤甲烷氧化菌pmo A基因丰度在不同施氮处理之间无显著性差异(每克干土1.54×10~6-3.20×10~6拷贝数);秋季,pmo A基因丰度在施加NH_4Cl和(NH_4)_2SO_4处理小区(每克干土1.93×10~5-7.6×10~5拷贝数)与对照(每克干土(4.03×10~6±1.2×10~6)拷贝数)相比有所降低,尤其在(NH_4)_2SO_4处理小区(每克干土(4.61×10~5±2.61×10~5)拷贝数)显著降低;无论夏季还是秋季,施加不同形态氮处理土壤甲烷氧化菌均以Type I型为主(相对丰度在70.6%-85.4%之间),并以Methylobacter-group(Type I)为优势类群,占Type I型的55.1%-91.7%;Methylobacter-group(Type I)的相对丰度在夏季不同形态氮处理土壤样品中无显著差异,但秋季样品中在施加(NH_4)_2SO_4(52.7%±6.5%)和NH_4Cl(56.1%±8.9%)的处理显著低于对照土壤(77.0%±2.9%),Methylococcus-group(Type I)的相对丰度则在(NH_4)_2SO_4和NH_4Cl处理土壤呈增加的趋势。这些结果表明铵态氮肥添加对温带森林土壤甲烷氧化菌的生长具有抑制作用并导致其群落结构发生改变,受夏季温度和水分的影响,这种抑制作用在秋季表现更明显,而NO_3~--N添加对土壤甲烷氧化菌的群落组成和丰度无显著影响。这些结果解释了以往观测到的施铵态氮肥显著降低秋季温带林地土壤甲烷净吸收量,而在夏季无显著影响的观测结果,解释了长期氮沉降影响森林土壤甲烷吸收的微生物机制。     

A three-dimensional general circulation model of the surface layers of Lake Baikal

A three-dimensional general circulation model has been developed to investigate mixing processes in Lake Baikal, Siberia. Emphasis is placed on the 4–5-month period when the lake is completely ice-covered, a time of particular importance to the re-population of the lake by diatoms. The model represents the top 250 m and includes a new mixing scheme developed specifically for the investigation of under-ice flows. The effects of spatial patterns of snow and ice transparency on circulation and temperature are investigated. In general, temperature profiles provide an indication of the extent and depth of mixing and are highly sensitive to the presence of snow and to the transparency of ice. Generated profiles agree well with in situ measurements, which are difficult to obtain during this period. The model is shown to be particularly successful in simulating mixing processes in Lake Baikal. The surface heat fluxes that are required for a model of this type were estimated using satellite data, which provide complete coverage of the lake within one image. An increase in albedo values of 20% has no significant impact on the development of the temperature profile. Finally, density driven currents generated in the model were investigated. The magnitudes of the model currents compared to observations suggest that the background flow under ice in the lake may be density driven.     

Biochemical and molecular characterization of methanotrophs in soil from a pristine New Zealand beech forest

Methane (CH4) oxidation and the methanotrophic community structure of a pristine New Zealand beech forest were investigated using biochemical and molecular methods. Phospholipid-fatty acid-stable-isotope probing (PLFA-SIP) was used to identify the active population of methanotrophs in soil beneath the forest floor, while terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) and cloning and sequencing of the pmoA gene were used to characterize the methanotrophic community. PLFA-SIP suggested that type II methanotrophs were the predominant active group. T-RFLP and cloning and sequencing of the pmoA genes revealed that the methanotrophic community was diverse, and a slightly higher number of type II methanotrophs were detected in the clone library. Most of the clones from type II methanotrophs were related to uncultured pmoA genes obtained directly from environmental samples, while clones from type I were distantly related to Methylococcus capsulatus. A combined data analysis suggested that the type II methanotrophs may be mainly responsible for atmospheric CH4 consumption. Further sequence analysis suggested that most of the methanotrophs detected shared their phylogeny with methanotrophs reported from soils in the Northern Hemisphere. However, some of the pmoA sequences obtained from this forest had comparatively low similarity (<97%) to known sequences available in public databases, suggesting that they may belong to novel groups of methanotrophic bacteria. Different methods of methanotrophic community analysis were also compared, and it is suggested that a combination of molecular methods with PLFA-SIP can address several shortcomings of stable isotope probing.     

Recovery of methanotrophs from disturbance: population dynamics,evenness and functioning

Biodiversity is claimed to be essential for ecosystem functioning, but is threatened by anthropogenic disturbances. Prokaryotes have been assumed to be functionally redundant and virtually inextinguishable. However, recent work indicates that microbes may well be sensitive to environmental disturbance. Focusing on methane-oxidizing bacteria as model organisms, we simulated disturbance-induced mortality by mixing native with sterilized paddy soil in two ratios, 1:4 and 1:40, representing moderate and severe die-offs. Disturbed microcosms were compared with an untreated control. Recovery of activity and populations was followed over 4 months by methane uptake measurements, pmoA-qPCR, pmoA-based terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and a pmoA-based diagnostic microarray. Diversity and evenness of methanotrophs decreased in disturbed microcosms, but functioning was not compromised. We consistently observed distinctive temporal shifts between type I and type II methanotrophs, and a rapid population growth leading to even higher cell numbers comparing disturbed microcosms with the control. Overcompensating mortality suggested that population size in the control was limited by competition with other bacteria. Overall, methanotrophs showed a remarkable ability to compensate for die-offs.     

Molecular phylogeny of the freshwater sponges in Lake Baikal

The phylogenetic relationship of the freshwater sponges (Porifera) in Lake Baikal is not well understood. A polyphyletic and/or monophyletic origin have been proposed. The (endemic) Baikalian sponges have been subdivided into two families: endemic Lubomirskiidae and cosmopolitan Spongillidae. In the present study, two new approaches have been made to resolve the phylogenetic relationship of Baikalian sponges; analysis of (1) nucleotide sequences from one mitochondrial gene, the cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and of (2) one selected intron from the tubulin gene. Specimens from the following endemic Baikalian sponge species have been studied; Lubomirskia baicalensis , Baikalospongia intermedia, Baikalospongia recta , Baikalospongia bacillifera and Swartschewskia papyracea . They are all grouped to the family of Lubomirskiidae. Sequence comparisons were performed with the ubiquitously distributed freshwater sponge Spongilla lacustris (family Spongillidae) as well as with one marine sponge, Suberites domuncula . A sequence comparison * * The sequences reported here are being deposited in the EMBL data base. of the mitochondrial COI gene revealed a monophyletic grouping of the endemic Baikalian sponges with S. lacustris as the most related species to the common ancestor. The sequences of the COI gene from B. recta , B. intermedia , B. bacillifera and L. baicalensis were found to be identical and separated from those of S. lacustris and S. papyracea . In a second approach, the exon/intron sequences framing the intron‐2 of the sponge tubulin gene were chosen for the phylogenetic analysis. The intron sequences were aligned and used for construction of a phylogenetic tree. This analysis revealed again a monophyletic grouping with S. lacustris as the closest related species to the common ancestor. It is concluded that the Baikalian sponges, which have been studied here, are of monophyletic origin. Furthermore, the data suggest that the endemic species S. papyracea is the phylogenetically oldest, extant, endemic Baikalian sponge species.     

Molecular Analysis of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Aerobic Methanotrophs by Targeting Genes of 16S rRNA and Particulate Methane Monooxygenase

Molecular diversity of deep-sea hydrothermal vent aerobic methanotrophs was studied using both 16S ribosomalDNA and pmoA encoding the subunit A of particulate methane monooxygenase (pMOA). Hydrothermal vent plume and chimney samples were collected from back-arc vent at Mid-Okinawa Trough (MOT), Japan, and the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) site along Mid-Atlantic Ridge, respectively. The target genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction from the bulk DNA using specific primers and cloned. Fifty clones from each clone library were directly sequenced. The 16S rDNA sequences were grouped into 3 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), 2 from MOT and 1 from TAG. Two OTUs (1 MOT and 1 TAG) were located within the branch of type I methanotrophic ?-Proteobacteria. Another MOT OTU formed a unique phylogenetic lineage related to type I methanotrophs. Direct sequencing of 50 clones each from the MOT and TAG samples yielded 17 and 4 operational pmoA units (OPUs), respectively. The phylogenetic tree based on the pMOA amino acid sequences deduced from OPUs formed diverse phylogenetic lineages within the branch of type I methanotrophs, except for the OPU MOT-pmoA-8 related to type X methanotrophs. The deduced pMOA topologies were similar to those of all known pMOA, which may suggest that the pmoA gene is conserved through evolution. Neither the 16S rDNA nor pmoA molecular analysis could detect type II methanotrophs, which suggests the absence of type II methanotrophs in the collected vent samples.     

Abundance and composition of the summer phytoplankton community along a transect from the Barguzin River to the central basin of Lake Baikal

The abundance and composition of phytoplankton were investigated at six stations along a transect from the Barguzin River inflow to the central basin of Lake Baikal in August 2002 to clarify the effect of the river inflow on the phytoplankton community in the lake. The water temperature in the epilimnion was high near the shore at Station 1 (17.3°C), probably due to the higher temperature of the river water, and gradually decreased offshore at Station 6 (14.5°C). Thermal stratification developed at Stations 2–6, and a thermocline was observed at a 17–22-m depth at Stations 2–4 and an 8–12-m depth at Stations 5 and 6. The concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients in the epilimnion at all stations were <1.0 μmol N l⁻¹ and <0.16 μmol P l⁻¹, respectively. Relatively high concentrations of nutrients (0.56–7.38 μmol N l⁻¹ and 0.03–0.28 μmol P l⁻¹) were detected in the deeper parts of the euphotic zone. Silicate was not exhausted at all stations (>20 μmol Si l⁻¹). The chlorophyll a (chl. a) concentration was high (>10 μg l⁻¹) near the shore at Station 1 and low (<3 μg l⁻¹) at five other stations. The <2 μm fraction of chl. a in Stations 2–6 ranged between 0.80 and 1.85 μg l⁻¹, and its contribution to total chl. a was high (>60%). In this fraction, picocyanobacteria were abundant at all stations and ranged between 5 × 10⁴ and 5 × 10⁵ cells ml⁻¹. In contrast, chl. a in the >2 μm fraction varied significantly (0.14–11.17 μg l⁻¹), and the highest value was observed at Station 1. In this fraction, the dominant phytoplankton was Aulacoseira and centric diatoms at Station 1 and Cryptomonas, Ankistrodesmus, Asterionella, and Nitzschia at Stations 2–6. The present study demonstrated the dominance of picophytoplankton in the pelagic zone, while higher abundance of phytoplankton dominated by diatoms was observed in the shallower littoral zone. These larger phytoplankters in the littoral zone probably depend on nutrients from the Barguzin River.     

Use of the lateral line for feeding in two Lake Baikal sculpins

Batrachocottus baicalensis , endemic to Lake Baikal, Russia, has wider lateral line canals than Paracottus kneri , which also inhabits Siberian streams. In quiet water B. baicalensis responded to amphipods at a greater distance than did P. kneri. Batrachocottus baicalensis also moves less often from search positions than does P. kneri . Fish responded to faster moving prey at a greater distance than slower prey. They also responded to a greater distance to prey moving more parallel to the fish's body surface. In an artificial stream B. baicalensis responded only to prey that touched them whilst P. kneri responded to both swimming prey and prey that contacted them. It is argued that B. baicalensis is primarily an ambush predator that is a habitat specialist and P. kneri is a cruising predator that visits many habitats.