Comparative changes in density and demography of large herbivores in the Masai Mara Reserve and its surrounding human-dominated pastoral ranches in Kenya

Wildlife habitats in pastoral lands adjoining protected areas in east African savannas are getting progressively degraded, fragmented and compressed by expanding human populations and intensification of land use. To understand the consequences of these influences on wildlife populations, we contrasted the density and demography of 13 wild and three domestic large herbivores between the Masai Mara National Reserve and the adjoining pastoral ranches using aerial surveys conducted in the wet and dry seasons during 1977–2010. Species of different body sizes and feeding styles had different densities between landscapes and seasons. Small-sized herbivores, requiring short, nutritious grasses, and browsers were more abundant in the ranches than the reserve in both seasons. Medium-sized herbivores moved seasonally between landscapes. Larger-bodied herbivores, requiring bulk forage but less susceptible to predation, were more abundant in the reserve than the ranches. The proportions of newborn warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and juvenile topi (Damaliscus korrigum) were higher in the ranches, with shorter grasses and lower predation risk than in the reserve. These results suggest that pastoral lands adjoining protected areas in African savannas are important as seasonal dispersal and breeding grounds for wild herbivores. However, human population growth and dramatic land use changes are progressively degrading wildlife habitats in pastoral areas, thus restricting the seasonal wildlife dispersal movements between the protected areas and adjoining pastoral lands. Conservation efforts should focus on (1) creating and maintaining functional heterogeneity in protected areas that mimic moderate pastoral grazing conditions to attract small and medium-bodied grazers and (2) securing dispersal areas, including corridors, to ensure continued seasonal large herbivore movements between protected and pastoral systems.     

Ecology and conservation of grassland birds in southeastern South America: a review

ABSTRACT The grasslands of southeastern South America (SESA), comprising one of the most extensive grassland ecosystems in the Neotropics, have been negatively impacted by the development of the livestock industry, arable agriculture, and forestry. SESA grasslands have a rich avifauna that includes 22 globally threatened and near‐threatened species, and many other species have suffered local population extinctions and range reductions. In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, grassland birds in SESA are threatened by improper use of agrochemicals, unfavorable fire management regimes, pollution, and illegal capture and hunting. Studies to date have provided information about the distribution of grassland birds, the threats populations face, and the habitat requirements of some threatened species, but more information is needed concerning dispersal and migration patterns, genetics, and factors that influence habitat use and species survival in both natural and agricultural landscapes. There are few public protected areas in the region (1% of original grasslands), and many populations of threatened grassland birds are found on private lands. Therefore, efforts to preserve grassland habitat must reconcile the interests of land owners and conservationists. Current conservation efforts include establishment of public and private reserves, promotion of agricultural activities that reconcile production with biodiversity conservation, development of multilateral conservation projects across countries, and elaboration of action plans. Measures that result in significant losses to private land owners should include economic compensation, and use of economic incentives to promote agriculture and forestry in native grassland areas should be discouraged, especially in priority areas for grassland birds. Although more studies are needed, some actions, particularly habitat protection and improved management of public and private lands, should be taken immediately to improve the conservation status of grassland birds in SESA.     

Land use heterogeneity causes variation in demographic viability of a bioindicator of species-richness in protected fen grasslands

Land use change is one of the main drivers of species extinction. In Europe, grasslands are under active conflict between conservation efforts and increasing agricultural pressures. Here, we examine the demographic effects of differential land use on the herbaceous perennial Trollius europaeus L. (Ranunculaceae), a bioindicator of species-richness and ecosystem services in wet grasslands of Central Europe. Demographic data were collected in 2006–2009 from nine populations in seven protected sites of northeastern Germany representing four land use types. We constructed stage-based matrix population models to explore the effects of various land management on demographic viability of focal populations. We show that most studied populations are declining (λ < 1), although the estimates of local extinction vary between ≤15 years for grazed and woodland populations, and 20–99 years for mown and abandoned populations. The joint information from our elasticity analyses and life table response experiments revealed that reproduction, growth of small vegetative individuals and survival of reproductive stages are most important for population viability. Our study shows that the current land uses in protected areas where T. europaeus is found is incompatible with its long-term viability. We suggest that, when compatible with in situ practices, grasslands containing this species be mown after maturity in order to enhance seedling recruitment and to reduce competition for juveniles. Prolonged extinction times in abandoned populations offer a buffer to develop conservation schemes there. An improvement of conservation measures is urgently needed to maintain the populations of this important bioindicator and its associated community of moist species-rich fen grasslands.     

“Ordinary biodiversity” in western Burkina Faso (West Africa): what vegetation do the state forests conserve?

The role of state forests in the conservation of the savannah environment of western Burkina Faso (West Africa) was assessed by considering the customary and fundamental biological components of plant diversity. The focus is on the “ordinary biodiversity” which constitutes the current environment of human populations and which generates their resources. Overall floristic composition, α, β, γ diversities and species accumulation curves of landscape units were compared inside and outside protected areas. Common species were identified according to their frequencies in landscape units and their local abundance. The occurrences of functional (life form, dispersion, etc.) and human-valued (current uses, potential threats, etc.) traits were compared. Current land uses outside protected areas have an unequal effect on the various components of plant diversity. Species richnesses and specific structures were all the more altered for woody species as agricultural pressure is high; conversely, they were maintained for herbaceous communities for which the proportion of wide-ranging species increased. The preservation of useful plant species on cultivated lands was obvious for woody species with edible fruits but less tangible for timber and service wood. It was deficient for species that furnish other non-wood products (e.g. leaves used as food or fodder), the conservation of which may be jeopardized where anthropic pressure is high. Given current land uses and dynamics, maintaining conservation areas in land use planning is crucial in order to preserve ordinary biodiversity. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Densities and population sizes of raptors in Uganda’s conservation areas

Projected increases in Africa's human population over the next 40 years point to further, large-scale conversion of natural habitats into farmland, with far-reaching consequences for raptor species, some of which are now largely restricted to protected areas (PAs). To assess the importance of PAs for raptors in Uganda, we conducted an annual road survey through savanna, pastoral and agricultural land during 2008–2015. Here, we present density estimates for 34 diurnal raptor species, 17 of which were encountered largely or entirely within PAs. These included seven out of eight globally threatened or near-threatened species surveyed. Based mainly on published demographic values, we converted density estimates (birds 100 km?2) to numbers of adult pairs, for 10 resident, savanna-dependent species. We then estimated adult population sizes within conservation areas (individual PAs and clusters of contiguous PAs), based on the area of savanna in each site. This suggested that two threatened residents, Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus and Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos, have national breeding populations of just 53–75 and 74–105 pairs, respectively. A third species, White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis, may have a breeding population of just 22–32 pairs. In each case, at least 90% of pairs are thought to reside within Uganda's five largest conservation areas. In three cases our estimates of pair density were markedly lower than in other studies, while in six cases they were broadly consistent with published findings, often derived using more intensive survey methods. Further work is required to determine the accuracy of our estimates for individual conservation areas, and to assess the long-term viability of Uganda's threatened raptor populations.     

我国自然保护地历史遗留问题的系统解决方案

近年来, 我国自然保护地内存在的大量的人口密集区域、民生设施、矿业活动、开发建设项目、农牧业生产活动等历史遗留问题在中央环保督察中集中暴露出来。为采取针对性政策措施解决这些遗留问题, 本研究首先将其分为三大类: (1)保护越位与保护空缺并存; (2)生态保护和大量原住居民生计改善间的矛盾突出; (3)保护地内存在大量生产经营活动。在此基础上, 深入剖析了各类遗留问题产生的体制机制原因。为合理化解历史遗留问题导致的一系列矛盾, 提高保护地建设和管理质量, 本文从加强保护地体系的顶层设计、推动相关法律法规的制修订、采取多元化手段解决保护地内土地权属和矿业权问题、建立健全平衡保护与发展关系的体制机制等4个方面提出了历史遗留问题的系统性解决方案。     

From savannah to farmland: effects of land‐use on mammal communities in the Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem,Tanzania

Land‐use change is considered a major driver of biodiversity loss. In the western part of the Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem, we assessed large mammal species richness along a land‐use gradient (national park, uninhabited pastoral area and settled pastoral‐ and farmland). We found the highest species richness in the national park and in the pastoral area and lowest species richness in the settled and farmed area. There was little evidence of seasonal changes in species diversity. Except for top‐order carnivores, all functional feeding guilds were still represented in pastoral and settled areas. Although we did not find significant differences in body mass distributions and species’ representation of feeding guilds between the study sites, there was a trend that omnivores, mesopredators and top‐order carnivores tended to occur at lower species richness in agricultural areas than in the pastoral and fully protected areas. These results indicate that areas used for livestock keeping can maintain high wildlife species richness and that direct and indirect effects of agricultural and settlement expansions are the main drivers of species richness loss in the Tarangire–Manyara ecosystem and possibly other African savannah ecosystems. These results are useful for informed land‐use planning that aims to maintain species diversity and ecological connectivity between protected areas.     

北京市自然保护地生态效益及其影响因素

自然保护地是生物多样性富集区域,发挥着水源涵养、防风固沙等重要的生态效益。北京市共5类79处自然保护地,是首都重要生态屏障,但自然因素和人为干扰对自然保护地生态效益有着重要影响。核算了北京自然保护地的5种典型的生态效益,使用单因素方差分析比较了不同类型自然保护地生态效益的差异,并基于冗余分析法探究了2种自然因素(年均气温和年降水量)和4种人为因素(人口密度、建设用地比例、耕地比例和道路密度)对生态效益的影响。结果表明：(1)北京自然保护地总体生态效益：北京自然保护地生境质量高,生境质量指数均值高达0.88;其它4项可价值化的生态效益中,水源涵养价值最大,固碳价值最低。(2)各类自然保护地之间生态效益比较：除生境质量外,其它4个生态效益之和,自然保护区和森林公园显著高于其它3类自然保护地;湿地公园的生境质量显著低于其它4类保护地,而这4类保护地之间生境质量并无显著差异;从水源涵养的生态效益来看,风景名胜区和地质公园显著低于其它3类自然保护地。(3)人为干扰因素(影响水平为38.92%)对生态效益的影响程度远高于自然因素(影响水平为16.63%);防风固沙、水土保持和固碳效益主要受人为干扰...     

“保护兼容”理念源起、实践与发展

以国内外文献、报告、规划为原始材料,以"保护兼容"一词为核心,结合其使用语境,系统阐述在自然保护话语由"堡垒式"转向"社区保护"时,随着自然保护地功能与管理发生变化,人类活动的保护兼容性如何被重新发现并在自然保护实践中助力生物多样性保护。研究发现,"保护兼容"理念充分体现在景观尺度的土地利用连续体上;在生产性景观视角下乡村土地利用和传统农业系统进入自然保护领域;"保护兼容"理念以土地利用为基础下沉到乡村社区的资源管理、生计发展等多类型活动,以各种保护倡议和项目实现,并在发展中国家和发达国家呈现出不同特征。"保护兼容"理念既进行尺度扩展,探索区域内、跨行政区域乃至国家间多利益相关方参与、多类型土地利用贡献于自然保护扩展,也进行尺度下沉,倡导基于本土价值实现全球价值的保护理念。研究提出,全球在生物多样性保护中要进一步重视生产性景观和农业生物多样性保护,而发展中国家面对全球生物多样性保护紧迫目标时,需要坚持社区主体性和在保护实践中的主动性。     

Future land use effects on the connectivity of protected area networks in southeastern Spain

Land-use change is a major driver of the global biodiversity crisis, mainly via the fragmentation and loss of natural habitat. Although land-use changes will accelerate to meet humankind's growing demand for agricultural products, conservation planning rarely considers future land uses and how they may affect the connectivity of ecological networks. Here, we integrate land-use models with landscape fragmentation and connectivity analyses, to assess the effects of past and future land-use changes on the connectivity of protected area networks for a highly dynamic region in southeast Spain. Our results show a continued geographical polarisation of land use, with agricultural intensification and urban development in the coastal areas, and the abandonment of traditional land use in the mountains (e.g., 1100 km² of natural vegetation are projected to be lost in coastal areas whereas 32 km² of natural vegetation would recover in interior areas from 1991 to 2015). As a result, coastal protected areas will experience increasing isolation. The connectivity analyses reveal that the two protected area networks in place in the study area, the European “Natura 2000” and the Andalusian “RENPA” networks, include many landscape connectors. However, we identify two areas that currently lack protection but contain several important patches for maintaining the region's habitat connectivity: the northwestern and the southwestern slopes of the Sierra Cabrera and Bédar protected area. Our results highlight the importance of considering future land-use trajectories in conservation planning to maintain connectivity at the regional scale, and to improve the resilience of conservation networks.     

中国生物多样性就地保护成效与展望

生物多样性就地保护是指通过开展自然保护地体系的建立与管理, 结合自然保护地以外其他有效的基于区域的保护措施(other effective area-based conservation measures, OECMs), 从而实现物种种群及其栖息地的保护与恢复以及保障和提升生态系统服务的目标。就地保护是实现2020年全球生物多样性保护目标最为重要的措施之一。本文从自然保护地数量与面积、代表性、有效性, 以及其他生物多样性就地保护措施等方面, 整理和综述了国内外近年来的相关报道。总体来看, 我国基本建立了具有中国特色的生物多样性就地保护与管理体系, 实施了各项生物多样性保护恢复措施, 取得了一系列重大进展。自然保护地的面积和数量均呈现上升趋势, 已覆盖陆域国土面积的18%, 对一些重要生态系统及重点保护物种的保护取得了一定成效。正在建设的10处国家公园体制试点提升了部分重点物种的保护连通性。自然保护区总体管理状况相对较好, 保护了90%以上的哺乳动物和97%的兰科植物。此外, 其他有效的基于区域的保护措施亦为生物多样性就地保护贡献了民间力量。在此基础上, 本文对照《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2011-2030年)》中对“加强生物多样性就地保护”的各项要求, 分析总结了当前我国生物多样性就地保护仍然存在的问题与不足, 具体表现在以下几个方面: 自然保护地整体保护能力仍有待提升; 生物多样性保护优先区域仍然存在保护空缺; 自然保护区管理质量有待提升; 缺乏公共协商机制; 自然保护地以外的其他就地保护工作仍在探索阶段等。在此基础上, 对将来我国生物多样性就地保护提出了进一步建议与展望: (1)制定更为具体和量化的生物多样性就地保护目标; (2)加大力度减少物种受威胁程度, 特别是受关注较少的物种; (3)以保障和提升生态系统服务为目标, 提升生态系统保护修复的系统性与整体性; (4)加强自然保护地以外的生物多样性就地保护; (5)完善长期监测体系, 为生物多样性就地保护成效评估提供数据支撑。本文可为“2020年后全球生物多样性框架”特别是就地保护目标的制定与实施提供参考。     

High Population Density of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes verus</Emphasis> in the Haut Niger National Park,Republic of Guinea: Implications for Local and Regional Conservation

The Republic of Guinea harbours the largest population of the endangered western chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus, and the conservation of this population is regarded as a regional priority. Chimpanzees occur in 3 of the 5 protected areas in Guinea but their conservation status is unknown. We conducted a chimpanzee census in 2001–2002 in the Haut Niger National Park (HNNP), the largest protected area in the country. We counted nests along a total of 103.83 km of transects in the Mafou forest, 1 of the 2 core areas of the park. We recorded a total of 823 nests, of which 38.1% were located in gallery forests, although this habitat type covers only 4.2% of the study site. Using a site-specific mean nest decay rate of 194 days, we estimated the mean density of chimpanzees in the study area at 0.87 weaned individuals/km2, the highest density recorded in any West African protected area. A survey conducted in 2008–2009 by other authors in the Mafou forest suggests that the chimpanzee population remained stable over the last 6 yr. Given the significance of the chimpanzee population of the HNNP at the national and international levels, we provide recommendations for its conservation over the long term. Our results highlight the importance of gallery forests as key habitat for chimpanzees in the savannah biome. We therefore recommend that more attention be paid to the conservation of this habitat in land management and conservation planning schemes. In particular, we recommend setting aside gallery forests as ecological corridors between nearby protected areas to maintain exchange between distant chimpanzee populations.     

The role of macroinvertebrates for conservation of freshwater systems

Freshwater ecosystems are the most threatened ecosystems worldwide. Argentinian‐protected areas have been established mainly to protect vertebrates and plants in terrestrial ecosystems. In order to create a comprehensive biodiverse conservation plan, it is crucial to integrate both aquatic and terrestrial systems and to include macroinvertebrates. Here, we address this topic by proposing priority areas of conservation including invertebrates, aquatic ecosystems, and their connectivity and land uses. Location: Northwest of Argentina. We modeled the ecological niches of different taxa of macroinvertebrates such as Coleoptera, Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Megaloptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Acari, and Mollusca. Based on these models, we analyzed the contribution of currently established protected areas in the conservation of the aquatic biodiversity and we propose a spatial prioritization taking into account possible conflict regarding different land uses. Our analysis units were the real watersheds, to which were added longitudinal connectivity up and down the rivers. A total of 132 species were modeled in the priority area analyses. The analysis 1 showed that only an insignificant percentage of the macroinvertebrates distribution is within the protected areas in the North West of Argentina. The analyses 2 and 3 recovered similar values of protection for the macroinvertebrate species. The upper part of Bermejo, Salí‐Dulce, San Francisco, and the Upper part of Juramento basins were identified as priority areas of conservation. The aquatic ecosystems need special protection and 10% or even as much as 17% of land conservation is insufficient for species of macroinvertebrates. In turn the protected areas need to combine the aquatic and terrestrial systems and need to include macroinvertebrates as a key group to sustain the biodiversity. In many cases, the land uses are in conflict with the conservation of biodiversity; however, it is possible to apply the connectivity of the watersheds and create multiple‐use modules.     

基于Dobson算法的中国受威胁陆栖哺乳类优先保护识别与保护现状分析

优先保护区识别对受威胁物种的多样性保护具有重要价值。基于GIS空间分析、管理及预测能力,以中国受威胁陆栖哺乳动物为对象,建立受威胁物种的分布二值网格系统;利用Dobson算法对研究区3810个网格单元进行筛除,确定全国范围下受威胁物种的优先保护区域;结合中国主要的自然保护地分布数据（国家公园和自然保护区）,采用保护空缺方法分析优先保护区内受威胁动物的保护现状。研究发现,29个50km×50km的网格单元就包含了全部的受威胁陆栖哺乳物种,其中位于喜马拉雅山东南区等地的10个网格区域覆盖有80%以上的物种,其所处的10组县级行政区内被主要自然保护地保护的土地面积占25.9%,物种数占83.6%,存在一定的保护空缺。本文采用Dobson排除算法,以小面积规则网格为基本单元,顾及到了实验结果的客观性,有助于提高优先保护区的识别效率。     

Are protected areas maintaining bird diversity?

Evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas for sustaining biodiversity is crucial to achieving conservation outcomes. While studies of effectiveness have improved our understanding of protected‐area design and management, few investigations (< 5%) have quantified the ecological performance of reserves for conserving species. Here, we present an empirical evaluation of protected‐area effectiveness using long‐term measures of a vulnerable assemblage of species. We compare forest and woodland bird diversity in the Australian Capital Territory over 11 yr on protected and unprotected areas located in temperate eucalypt woodland and matched by key habitat attributes. We examine separately the response of birds to protected areas established prior to 1995 and after 1995 when fundamental changes were made to regional conservation policy. Bird diversity was measured in richness, occurrence of vulnerable species, individual species trajectories and functional trait groups. We found that protected areas were effective in maintaining woody vegetation cover in the study region, but were less effective in the protection of the target bird species assemblage. Protected areas were less species rich than unprotected areas, with significant declines in richness across sites protected prior to 1995. Small, specialised and vulnerable species showed stronger associations with unprotected areas than protected areas. Our findings indicate that recently established reserves (post‐1995) are performing similarly to unprotected woodland areas in terms of maintaining woodland bird diversity, and that both of these areas are more effective in the conservation of woodland bird populations than reserves established prior to 1995. We demonstrate that the conservation value of protected areas is strongly influenced by the physical characteristics, as well as the landscape context, of a given reserve and can diminish with changes in surrounding land use over time. Both protected areas and off‐reserve conservation schemes have important roles to play in securing species populations.     

The Policy Terrain in Protected Area Landscapes: Challenges for Agroforestry in Integrated Landscape Conservation

Integrated ecosystem and landscape approaches to conservation are moving from concept to practice in many parts of the developing world. Agroforestry – the deliberate management of trees on farms and in agricultural landscapes – is emerging as one of the most promising approaches to enhance and stabilize rural livelihoods, while reducing pressure on protected areas, enhancing habitat for some wild species, and increasing connectivity of landscape components. For the potential of agroforestry to be effectively harnessed, however, the policy and institutional environment needs to provide farmers with clear incentives to plant and protect trees that contribute to both ecosystem function and rural livelihoods. This paper analyzes the policy terrain affecting agroforestry around protected areas in five very different contexts across Sub-Saharan Africa, finding both expected and unexpected similarities. Across the sites in Uganda, Cameroon and Mali, the study revealed a rough policy terrain for agroforestry – systemic market constraints, contradictions between development approaches and conservation objectives, and inconsistencies in institutional and regulatory frameworks. Making the conservation landscape approach more effective will require that both agriculturalists and conservation planners have much greater appreciation for the conservation and livelihood potential of agroforestry.     

Agricultural mosaics maintain significant flower and visiting insect biodiversity in a global hotspot

Agricultural expansion requires mitigation to conserve biodiversity and maintain functional interactions across the transformed mosaic. Conservation outside protected areas (PAs) means providing increased spatial opportunities for populations to survive over the long-term. Here we assess the capacity of agricultural mosaics for maintaining indigenous biodiversity against the benchmark levels in neighbouring PAs. We do this in three geographical areas in the major biodiversity hotspot, the Cape Floristic Region. We focus on two functionally related groups, indigenous flowers and their associated native insects, to assess the biodiversity value of certain components of agricultural mosaics. These components include agriculturally disturbed land, semi-transformed, disturbed land, and remnant patches of natural land, as well as adjacent PAs as reference sites. Overall, species richness across the agricultural mosaics outside PAs was similar to that within PAs for insects, although more variable for plants. Nevertheless, sites outside PAs still retained great diversity of flowering plants. Across the agricultural mosaic, sites shared 20–38 % of their insect species, and 12–28 % of plant species, indicating substantial species turnover. Each particular agricultural component retained species not sampled elsewhere in the landscape, indicating that habitats outside PAs can make a significant contribution to the compositional biodiversity of an area. Our findings are positive for biodiversity conservation across these agricultural mosaics, with these semi-natural components within the production landscape, in effect, extending the size of the PAs for many species. Conservation planning should recognize the value of such agricultural mosaics.     

Agroforestry: a refuge for tropical biodiversity?

As rates of deforestation continue to rise in many parts of the tropics, the international conservation community is faced with the challenge of finding approaches which can reduce deforestation and provide rural livelihoods in addition to conserving biodiversity. Much of modern-day conservation is motivated by a desire to conserve 'pristine nature' in protected areas, while there is growing recognition of the long-term human involvement in forest dynamics and of the importance of conservation outside protected areas. Agroforestry -- intentional management of shade trees with agricultural crops -- has the potential for providing habitats outside formally protected land, connecting nature reserves and alleviating resource-use pressure on conservation areas. Here we examine the role of agroforestry systems in maintaining species diversity and conclude that these systems can play an important role in biodiversity conservation in human-dominated landscapes.     

Agriculturalists and pastoralists: Bronze Age economy of the Murghab alluvial fan,southern Central Asia

Archaeological investigations of pastoral economies often emphasize exchange relations with agricultural populations, though for Bronze Age Eurasia the notion of a ubiquitous ‘pastoral realm’ has masked various forms of mixed subsistence economies. In Central Asia, there are few attempts to specifically identify the domestic crops utilized by mobile pastoralists or what they may suggest about the role of agriculture in mobile pastoral production or subsistence strategies. This study reports the macrobotanical remains from two Late/Final Bronze Age (ca. 1950–1300 bc) mobile pastoralist habitation sites in the Murghab alluvial fan region of southern Turkmenistan. We compare our results with published macrobotanical data from contemporary agricultural settlements in the Murghab region, as well as with other sites in broader prehistoric Eurasia. We find that mobile pastoralists in the Murghab utilized some of the same domestic crops as their sedentary neighbors. While the data presented here do not preclude the possibility that mobile pastoralists may have practiced some low-investment cultivation (particularly of millet), we hypothesize an economic model that places mobile pastoralists in direct contact with nearby sedentary farming communities through exchange for pre-processed grains. These results highlight one of the possible strategies of mobile pastoral subsistence in Central Asia, and are a further step toward identifying the various degrees of agricultural involvement in the conceptually outdated pastoral realm of Eurasia.     

Monitoring land cover changes in African protected areas in the 21st century

Africa is home to some of the most vulnerable natural ecosystems and species on the planet. Around 7000 protected areas seek to safeguard the continent's rich biodiversity, but many of them face increasing management challenges. Human disturbances permeating into the parks directly and indirectly affect the ecological functioning and integrity of protected areas. With the envisaged expansion of the protected area network and further expected population and economic growth in the region, the competition between nature conservation and resources demands is likely to increase. The regular monitoring of land cover in and around protected areas can support the early detection of conservation conflicts. In this paper, we evaluate the use of the annual time series of MODIS Land Cover (LC) type product between 2003 and 2009 to monitor land cover changes at continental scale. We use the mean classification confidence and change frequency as indicators to assess the temporal consistency of the MODIS LC classifier for accurately monitoring land cover changes. We discuss the perspectives and issues for an automated monitoring of land cover changes in African protected areas.