Sleeping Site Use by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis> at Nonggang Nature Reserve,China

We collected data on sleeping site use of the François’ langur (Trachypithecus francoisi) between August 2003 and July 2004 at Nonggang Nature Reserve, China. We tested hypotheses regarding possible ultimate causes of sleeping site selection in light of our results. Langurs selected the ledges and caves on cliffs as sleeping sites. Of 23 identified sleeping sites, 7 were more frequently used than the others (≥9 times each, accounting for 64% of total observed nights). Langurs used most sleeping sites repeatedly, and reused some of them on consecutive nights; 4 consecutive nights were the longest run. We suggest that langurs choose sleeping sites to make approach and attack difficult by predators, and to increase familiarity so as to improve chances for escape. Langurs’ cryptic behaviors before entering sleeping sites and the rapid movement toward sleeping sites (4 min on average) with an increased level of vigilance may help to decrease the possibility of detection by predators. Access to food appears to have a profound influence on sleeping site selection in François’ langurs, as demonstrated by the langurs’ tendency to select sleeping sites close to their current main feeding sites. The position of sleeping site relative to the last feeding site of the day and the first feeding site of the subsequent morning indicated a strategy closer to that of a multiple central place forager than of a central place forager. Our results do not support the influences of other factors, e.g., avoidance of parasites, seeking comfort, and range or resource defense, on sleeping site selection.     

Seasonal Variation in the Activity Patterns and Time Budgets of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis> in the Nonggang Nature Reserve,China

Activity patterns and time budgets are 2 important aspects of animal behavior that researchers use to investigate ecological influences on individual behavior. We collected data on activity patterns and time budgets in 1 group of François’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) from August 2003 to July 2004 in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, Guangxi Province, China, via instantaneous scan sampling method with 15-min intervals. The diurnal activity pattern of François’ langurs showed morning and afternoon feeding peaks, with a midday resting peak. Seasonal change was apparent in the activity pattern: 2 significant feeding peaks occurred in the dry season and only 1 significant feeding peak in the rainy season. The group spent an average of 51.5% of the daytime resting. Feeding and moving accounted on average for 23.1% and 17.3% of the activity budget, respectively. Subjects spent little time on social activities, averaging 2% for grooming and 5.5% for playing. Their time budgets showed significant seasonal variation: they spent a greater proportion of time on feeding and less time on resting and grooming in the dry season than in the rainy season. They also differed among different sex-age classes: immatures spent more time playing, whereas adults devoted more time to resting, feeding, and grooming. Correlations between time budgets and food items or food availability clearly indicated that François’ langurs might adopt an energy-maximizing strategy when preferred foods were scarce in the dry season.     

Ranging behavior of the François’ langur (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis>) in the Fusui Nature Reserve,China

Data on activity budgets and ranging patterns were collected from March to December 2001 for one group of François’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) inhabiting a forested part of the Fusui Nature Reserve, Guangxi province, China. Our results indicate that the total size of the home range of the study group during the study period was 19 ha. The majority of their activities (52%) occurred within a small area, 22%, of their home range, and was concentrated in or near quadrats containing their sleeping sites, which may reduce the time and energetic cost of travel. The extent of the ranging behavior varied between months, with the smallest, 7 ha, recorded in July and the largest, 13.5 ha, in November. There was no significant difference between seasons. The monthly mean daily path lengths varied from 341 to 577 m. The daily path lengths showed significant seasonal changes: the path lengths were longer during the dry season than in the rainy season, which may be related to the scarcity of preferred food resources during the dry season.     

Factors Influencing Interannual and Intersite Variability in the Diet of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus francoisi</Emphasis>

Comparative studies of the diet of the same species in different habitats, and over the long term, are essential to understanding a species’ behavioral and ecological plasticity. Moreover, such studies can help researchers and managers evaluate a species’ capacity to cope with changes in habitat quality resulting from natural processes or human disturbance, which is important for developing conservation strategies. We compared dietary data for François’ langur (Trachypithecus francoisi) collected at Nonggang and Fusui Nature Reserves, Guangxi Province, China, over 2 separate study periods to evaluate interannual and intersite variation in diet. Young leaves were the preferred staple foods for langurs, whereas mature leaves and seeds served as fallback foods in response to seasonal shortage in the abundance of young leaves. Species composition of the diets and the percentage of feeding records for plant species varied between the 2 study periods. The langurs at both study sites fed selectively, and they did not base their diet simply on the abundance of plant species in the habitat. However, the plant species eaten by langur groups inhabiting the 2 different reserves were markedly different, and the top 10 food species eaten by the Fusui group showed no overlap with those eaten by the Nonggang group. The variation may be related to differences in forest composition resulting from different level of human disturbance. In summary, our results indicate that François’ langurs exhibit a comparable dietary pattern both temporally and geographically, but there is marked interannual and intersite difference in species composition of the langur diet.     

贵州麻阳河黑叶猴秋季主要食物营养分析及对食物选择的影响

2009年9～11月,采集贵州麻阳河黑叶猴取食较多的23种主要食物及取食较少的14种非主要食物,用称重法、凯氏定氮法、酸碱洗涤法及范式洗涤法分析各独立样本的水分、粗蛋白、粗纤维和酸性洗涤纤维(ADF)的营养含量,计算相应的粗蛋白/酸性洗涤纤维(PROT/ADF)比值,并将所得到的各样本的营养含量与相应的秋季取食比例进行...     

中国麻阳河国家级自然保护区黑叶猴种群数量估计与分布

2012年10月至2015年5月,对中国贵州省麻阳河国家级自然保护区黑叶猴(Trachypithecus francoisi)的种群数量和分布进行了调查研究。本次调查采用了直接观察猴群计数、夜宿地观察、问卷调查和访问、未出版资料及文献补充4种调查方法。结果表明,麻阳河国家级自然保护区及周边共有黑叶猴72群(含保护区外2群)。基于直接计数的25个猴群,计算猴群平均大小为(7.7±2.9)只,并以此计算保护区及周边黑叶猴数量为554只。其中,凉桥片区共有41群,315只;龚溪口片区共有16群,123只;务川片区共有15群,116只。调查发现保护区黑叶猴的分布基本以麻阳河、洪渡河及其支流兰子河为中轴,以箱状河谷的峭壁上和河岸附近的植被区作为主要活动范围。67群猴群发现点位于离河流中轴线缓冲距1 500 m区域以内,占总群数的93.1%。因此,为了确保该物种的生存以及缓解当地人猴冲突,建议重点加强对河流两岸栖息地的保护管理和自然植被恢复,尤其在人口稠密区更为必要。     

Food Choice of White-Headed Langurs in Fusui,China

We studied the feeding ecology of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) from September 1997 to September 1998 in Fusui Rare and Precious Animal Reserve, SW Guangxi, China. We collected data in the central part of a group of limestone hills where the main population pool of langurs was located. The langurs fed on 50 plant species (belonging to 42 genera from 28 families) out of 164 species in the habitat (belonging to 112 genera from 48 families). Most of the food plant species were not common in the habitat. There are 16 important food species, including 6 key species. White-headed langurs were extremely folivorous, feeding mainly on young leaves (75% of total feeding records) of a broad range of less common plant species, which were in less disturbed areas. Thus, langur groups in high quality habitat had greater access to preferred foods, and the future of langurs in the Reserve may depend on immediate cessation of tree felling.     

广西弄岗黑叶猴栖息地选择与利用

2005年9月至2006年8月对广西弄岗国家自然保护区内一群黑叶猴进行行为观察,采用瞬时扫描法观察并收集猴群的栖息地利用数据,分析黑叶猴对喀斯特石山栖息地的选择与利用规律。结果表明,黑叶猴对不同山体部位的利用有显著性差异(χ~2=43.063,df=4,P0.001)。黑叶猴对崖壁的利用频率最高(占总记录的36.67%±9.44%),其次是山坡(32.30%±9.57%),对山脚(14.15%±5.01%)、山顶(11.24%±8.42%)和平地(5.63%±2.92%)的利用较少。分析发现,黑叶猴对山体部位的利用没有显著的季节性差异(山顶:Z=-0.160,P=0.837;崖壁:Z=-0.320,P=0.749;山坡:Z=-0.480,P=0.631;山脚:Z=-1.601,P=0.109;平地:Z=0,P=1)。黑叶猴将崖壁作为主要的休息场所,山坡和山脚为主要的移动和觅食场所。黑叶猴对栖息地的利用受食物可获得性的影响。当食物中花的可获得性降低时,猴群增加对山脚的利用;当嫩叶可获得性降低时,猴群增加在崖壁移动的频率;当果实的可获得性升高时,猴群增加在平地觅食的频率。食物组成与黑叶猴栖息地利用也有关系。总体来看,黑叶猴对山顶的利用频率与花的觅食比例呈显著正相关;对山脚的利用频率与果实+种子的觅食比例呈显著正相关。猴群在山顶休息的频率随花和成熟叶的觅食比例的上升而上升;在山脚休息的频率随果实+种子的觅食比例的上升而上升。猴群在山坡觅食的频率随果实+种子的觅食比例的下降而上升;在山脚觅食的频率随嫩叶的觅食比例的下降而上升。另外,平均最低温度与猴群在平地觅食的频率呈负相关关系。分析表明食物的分布和数量对黑叶猴栖息地利用有重要影响,黑叶猴对栖息地的选择是在觅食利益与风险之间进行权衡的结果。     

广西弄岗自然保护区黑叶猴的种群动态

2006年5～7月和2008年10～11月,采用访问和小区蹲点绝对数量统计法对弄岗自然保护区黑叶猴种群数量进行调查.结果 表明,弄岗黑叶猴分布区约为26 km2,2008年有黑叶猴13群76只,平均群大小5.85只/群,群密度0.5群/km2,种群密度为2.92只/km2.与2006年相比,2008年猴群增加3个两性群,个体数量增加10只,即增加15.15%,种群密度增加14.96%,平均群大小增加6.36%.弄岗黑叶猴种群数量呈现出增长趋势,这可能与保护区加强管护和宣传有关.     

Diet of the Delacour's langur (Trachypithecus delacouri) in Van Long Nature Reserve,Vietnam

The six limestone langur taxa of Southeast Asia inhabit the rugged limestone karst mountains, although the reason for their current restriction to this habitat is unclear. From August 2007 to July 2008, I collected data on the diet and feeding behavior of the critically endangered Delacour's langur (Trachypithecus delacouri) in Van Long Nature Reserve, Vietnam. I used these data to evaluate the hypothesis that limestone langurs are found on karst habitat because they depend on endemic limestone plants. Feeding accounted for 29% of the langurs' activity budget. Young leaves dominated the diet monthly, seasonally, and annually. The annual diet consists of nearly 79% foliage with almost 60% young leaves. Despite a distinct wet and dry season, over the study period, seasonal variation in plant part consumption was slight. Fruit and seeds were a small contribution to the diet. Delacour's langurs ate 42 of 145 available species, and they concentrated on a subset of this number. Five plant species comprised more than 60% of the diet and 16 species comprised more than 93%. More than half of the diet came from climbers. Delacour's langurs are among the most highly folivorous of studied colobines and, along with the closely related T. leucocephalus of southern China, the most folivorous of the Asian langurs. Whether high folivory is owing to a lack of available fruits and seeds in limestone habitats is unknown. What is certain, however, is that the plant species most important in the Delacour's langurs' diet at VLNR, throughout the study, were not plants endemic to limestone. Feeding dependence alone, therefore, cannot explain the current distribution of limestone langurs on karst habitat. Am. J. Primatol. 72:317–324, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

贵州麻阳河自然保护区黑叶猴繁殖周期的初步研究

黑叶猴(Trachypithecus francoisi francoisi),属灵长目(Primates),猴科(Cercopithecidae),疣猴亚科(Colobinae)。分布于越南北部和中国的广西、贵州和重庆等地的山地岩溶地区(Fooden,1976;王应祥等,1999)。由于生境特殊,受人为活动影响较大(汪松,1998),该物种近20年来数量呈下     

广西恩城保护区黑叶猴种群数量和保护现状

黑叶猴是栖息于喀斯特石山地区的珍稀濒危灵长类动物,由于非法捕杀和栖息地丧失,种群数量急剧减少。2017年10-12月,我们采用样方法调查恩城国家级自然保护区及其周边地区黑叶猴的种群分布、数量及保护现状,分析其致危因素,为制定有效管理行动计划提供理论依据。本次调查共记录到黑叶猴夜宿地89处,其中有43处夜宿地下方有新鲜排泄物。结合本次调查和访问,确定黑叶猴的种群数量为18群100~105只,包括1只全白化黑叶猴成年雌性个体;其中11群分布在保护区内,7群分布在保护区外。猴群由3~12只个体组成。栖息地破碎化和退化是威胁恩城保护区黑叶猴种群生存的主要因素。     

Food Items Consumed by White-headed Langurs in Fusui, China

We studied the socioecology of white-headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) from September 1997 to September 1998 in Fusui Precious Animal Reserve, SW Guangxi, China. We collected data on climate, phenology of food plant species, and foods consumed by langurs living in habitats with different levels of human disturbance. Feeding records showed that the most food is from less common plant species. Young leaves were the staple food item in all langur groups, and consumption correlates with availability. Consumption of mature leaves is not significantly correlated with their availability, but the langurs fed on them, and other food items such as fruits and seeds, when the availability of young leaves was low. Langurs in different areas had broadly similar diets, but they varied most in the proportion of supplementary items such as fruit. Groups in more disturbed habitat did not increase the overall proportion of mature leaves in their diet, but instead maintained their intake of young leaves from a greater diversity of species, and incorporated more immature fruit. Conservationists should direct efforts toward protection of rare plant species providing preferred food items, particularly supplementary foods at times when, and in areas where, preferred food items are less available.     

贵州宽阔水国家级自然保护区黑叶猴种群数量与分布

2015年5—12月,基于宽阔水国家级自然保护区的黑叶猴历史资料设定重点调查区域,采用定点观察与痕迹观察资料收集以及非诱导式访问调查等方法对保护区黑叶猴种群数量和分布进行调查,并结合保护区巡护记录,重新确定黑叶猴在保护区的种群数量和分布区域。结果显示:保护区黑叶猴种群数量约为29群195只,比1995年增长了143.75%,比2003年增长了39.29%;主要分布区域位于保护区西南部的马蹄溪、白石溪、猪钻子沟、苏家沟、油筒溪、观音岩、底水、枇杷岩、让水坝等9个沟段中。全保护区内黑叶猴群体密度为0.11群/km~2,种群密度为0.74只/km~2,其中主要活动范围约32.50 km~2,主要活动范围内群体密度为0.89群/km~2,种群密度为6.00只/km~2。种群数量的稳定增长得益于保护区采取的一系列保护管理措施,有效制止了盗猎行为的发生,减少了附近居民活动对黑叶猴的干扰和影响。为进一步保护黑叶猴种群及其栖息地,建议保护区通过划定重点管护区域、加强科学管理、开展生境管理和调节、加强环境保护教育和社区共管等措施建立、健全保护管理机制。     

广西弄岗黑叶猴的家域和日漫游距离

我们对广西弄岗国家级自然保护区内的一群黑叶猴的家域和漫游行为进行了为期12个月的研究,以探讨该物种利用喀斯特石山的规律.结果表明,黑叶猴的家域总面积为28.75 hm2,平均月家域面积为8.35±4.24 hm2.猴群平均日漫游距离为661.77±130.20 m.黑叶猴对家域面积的利用表现出雨季明显小于旱季的季节性变...     

Food selection by the silver leaf monkey,Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus,in relation to plant chemistry

Summary Samples of leaves and fruits exploited as food items byTrachypithecus auratus sondaicus were analysed for nitrogen content, acid detergent fibre (ADF), pepsin cellulase digestibility (CDIG), condensed tannins (CT), total phenolics (TP) and protein precipitation capacity (PP) and compared with fruits and leaves not eaten. Differences in chemical measures for items eaten and not eaten were not statistically significant but trends indicate that leaves may have been selected for their lower fibre content and greater digestibility. Fruits eaten also had a higher mean level of CDIG and lower mean level of ADF than fruits not eaten but these measures are not considered to be of major importance in fruit selection as CDIG was lower and ADF higher in fruits eaten than in leaves eaten. Levels of CT, TP and PP capacity were higher in fruits eaten than in fruits not eaten but lower in leaves eaten than in leaves not eaten. The role of tannins and phenolics in food selection is discussed. Leaves (and fruits) were not strongly selected on the basis of protein content. Approximately half the dietary intake ofT. auratus sondaicus was leaves, a protein-rich food source. Possibly, protein levels in foliage at Pangandaran were sufficient that selection for this nutrient was not required. A nutrient other than protein (for example, soluble carbohydrates) may have been maximised through food selection. The protein/ADF ratio may provide an indicator of the acceptability of foliage in a habitat as potential food for a colobine. However, this ratio did not govern food selection byT. auratus sondaicus at Pangandaran.     

The diet and feeding behavior of the silver leaf monkey (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus) in Indonesia

I describe the diet and feeding behavior of silver leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus auratus sondaicus) in the Pangandaran Nature Reserve, West Java, Indonesia, and compare a group living in old secondary rain forest with a group living in mixed plantation/secondary forest to determine intraspecific variation in feeding behavior and the importance of the plantation species in the diet of the monkeys. Young leaves and leaf buds made up slightly less than half of their diets, with both groups showing a preference for a few species when seasonally available. Fruits and flowers of a few species were also preferentially selected when available. These included sweet, fleshy fruits, which most other colobines tend to avoid. Young leaf intake was greatest in months when fruit intake was low. Mature leaves were rarely eaten. Both groups spent approximately 20% of feeding time foraging on Moraceae species. Differences in the diet of the two groups were related largely to differences in vegetational composition and the availability and abundance of food items for the species common to both sites. Teak (Tectona grandis) was the top food species of the group living in mixed plantation/secondary forest, with the midribs of young leaves preferentially selected. Young leaves ofT. grandis, available throughout the study, provided a staple food and were eaten when preferred foods were scarce. More favored food items were available to the group living in old secondary forest, though none was a staple food.     

广西黑叶猴栖息地景观格局破碎化分析及其对种群的影响

黑叶猴(Trachypithecus francoisi)是仅分布于喀斯特石山生境的珍稀濒危灵长类动物。由于非法捕杀和人类活动干扰,其种群数量正在急剧减少。同时,随着森林砍伐和土地开垦的加速,其栖息地严重破碎化。因此,了解栖息地破碎化对黑叶猴种群的影响对于保护这一珍稀濒危物种具有重要意义。基于遥感影像、土地利用数据以及黑叶猴种群调查数据,通过Fragstats软件开展广西黑叶猴栖息地景观破碎化分析,并通过相关性和多元逐步回归分析,探讨了景观格局对广西黑叶猴种群数量的影响。结果表明：(1)广西黑叶猴栖息地呈现破碎化严峻、斑块形状复杂化、斑块团聚程度较弱且分散化的现象;栖息地以林地景观占据重要优势,但人为景观的干扰十分强烈;在不同地区中,生境破碎化程度、人为干扰强度以及景观配置均呈现不同的特征,其中扶绥地区人为干扰最为强烈,德保地区的景观块数破碎化程度较为严重,而龙州地区的人为干扰程度最小,其森林景观最为聚集。(2)蔓延度指数、平均斑块分维指数、林地面积、林地斑块大小、裸岩面积和裸岩面积比重等景观指数与黑叶猴种群数量有显著正向关系,Shannon多样性指数则是显著负向关系;而耕地面积、耕地...     

Variations in diet composition of sympatric Trachypithecus francoisi and Macaca assamensis in the limestone habitats of Nonggang,China

Comparative studies of sympatric species are essential for understanding behavioral and ecological adaptation as well as the mechanisms that can reduce resource competition to allow coexistence.Fran?ois' langurs(Trachypithecus francoisi) and Assamese macaques(Macaca assamensis) are sympatric primate species found in the limestone seasonal rainforests of Nonggang Nature Reserve,southwestern Guangxi, China. To explore their different adaptation strategies, we collected data on diet using scan sampling at 15-min intervals. Our results revealed that Fran?ois' langurs showed a more flexible diet composition than Assamese macaques.Fran?ois' langurs increased dietary diversity and mature leaf consumption in response to seasonal scarcity of preferred young leaves and fruits, whereas Assamese macaques relied heavily on young bamboo leaves(Indocalamus calcicolus) in most months.These variations reflect the differences in digestive physiology, morphology, and the temporal and spatial distribution of food resources.     

The Emergence of an Endangered Species: Evolution and Phylogeny of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trachypithecus geei</Emphasis> of Bhutan

Golden langurs (Trachypithecus geei) are an endangered primate species in Bhutan. We discuss their evolution in terms of phylogeny, ecology, and biogeography. We test the hypothesis that rivers and mountains in Bhutan isolated a population of capped langurs (Trachypithecus pileatus) that later speciated into the morphologically distinct T. geei. Trachypithecus, the genus to which both capped and golden langurs belong, spread north from a paleorefuge in south China, and Semnopithecus (gray langurs) spread east and northward from a refuge in south India. We show that the 2 genera both arrived in Bhutan and were separated from each other by the Sunkosh River and Black Mountains. Likewise, a population of capped langurs isolated from parental populations by rivers speciated into the distinct golden langurs. We conducted field surveys covering the entire range of langurs in Bhutan. The Sunkosh River and Black Mountain range in west Bhutan isolate gray langurs and golden langurs from each other. In the east, the Manas River system (Manas-Mangde) served as a barrier between golden and capped langurs. However, it is an imperfect barrier and a contact zone between the 2 species occurred on the banks of the Mangde River. Second, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of the langurs of Bhutan via molecular phylogenetic tools. We sequenced the cytochrome b region (cyt b) of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to model a phylogeny. It revealed the distinct evolutionary paths of the golden, capped, and gray langurs. As predicted, golden and capped langurs are closely related to each other and to other species in Trachypithecus from Southeast Asia. The gray langur of Bhutan grouped into a distinct clade with conspecifics in Semnopithecus from India and Nepal. The south Indian clade of gray langurs is more ancient, with the Bhutan and Nepal gray langurs having diverged later, which fits with the glacial models of ice sheet retreats and colonization of South Asia by gray langurs from south India north toward the Himalayas. Likewise, the golden and capped langur clade are the most derived and divergent from the older groups of Trachypithecus in Southeast Asia, which also fits with paleorefuge models of recolonization by Trachypithecus into the rest of Southeast Asia and north toward the Himalayas from paleorefuges in Southeast Asia. As predicted, golden and capped langurs are closely related to each other and gray langurs are only distantly related to them. The divergence between capped and golden langurs is more recent, while the split between Trachypithecus and Semnopithecus is more ancient and took place before the Pliocene.