Cystic echinococcosis in Italy from the 1950s to present

In Italy the epidemiological pattern of cistic echinococcosis (CE) is incomplete and the information for most regions is out of date, contradictory, and almost exclusively limited to the intermediate hosts. The disease is found most frequently in particular social and economic conditions: widespread use of extensive or semi-extensive sheep farming, illegal slaughtering, and high numbers of sheepdogs and other types of dogs. The highest incidence in sheep is found in Sardinia (70.6-92.8%), Sicily (6.5-36.5%), Basilicata (5-28%), Abruzzo (22%) and Tuscany (47%). It North Italy, it is never higher than 0.5% in slaughtered sheep. No data are available on the biomolecular characterization of the strains of E. granulosus in Italy, apart from Sardinia and recently Lazio. G1 (Sheep strain), G7 (Pig strain) G2 (Tasmanian sheep strain) have been identified in Sardinia and G1 and G3 (Buffalo strain) have been recently isolated in Lazio. In Italy, CE has was also found in buffaloes (2.63-9.8%) and horses (<1%). However, further epidemiological surveys and genotyping study are necessary. The small quantity of up to date information on the diffusion of E. granulosus in dogs (Abruzzo 4%, Sardinia 6-10% and Sicily 19.3%) highlights the need for modern, fast, sensitive and low risk diagnostic methods which would provide a true picture of the pattern of the infection in this host.     

Immunoenzymatic analysis and genetic detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in lambs from Italy

Cryptosporidiosis is a worldwide-diffused protozoan disease causing important economic losses to animal husbandry and livestock production. Additionally, several species/genotypes of Cryptosporidium have a relevant zoonotic potential and ruminants may be important sources of infection for human beings. Nonetheless, in Europe, little is known of the presence of Cryptosporidium in sheep nor on the species/genotypes involved. To obtain information on the occurrence of cryptosporidiosis in lambs and the potential zoonotic role of the Cryptosporidium isolates, one hundred and forty-nine faecal samples individually collected from lambs in central Italy have been examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium. All faecal specimens were processed with a commercial ELISA kit immunoassay and all ELISA-positive samples were further analyzed genetically. Twenty-six ELISA-positive samples scored positive at the PCR and the sequences obtained displayed 100% identity with the zoonotic Cryptosporidum parvum. This work suggests for the first time that lambs in Italy may shed C. parvum, thus representing a potential public health hazard.     

Pastoral Communities in the Sardinian Highlands (Italy): A View on Social Mobility

For several decades the socio-economic and political organization of rural communities in the northern Mediterranean has been a central topic of ethnographic and modern historical research. Although the concept of (rural) class has generally been avoided, a scholarly picture has often been maintained of a sharp social stratification in local contexts. In this framework the notions of peasantry and patronage have frequently been applied. This article argues that on occasion rural communities in southern Europe showed a rather flexible social stratification and high amounts of social mobility in particular among shepherd groups. The case study is of the agro-pastoral community of Fonni in the central mountains of Sardinia (Italy), which has been characterized predominantly by a pastoral economy based on sheep and goat herding during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.     

Fast molecular assay to detect the rate of decay of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bactrocera oleae</Emphasis> (Diptera: Tephritidae) DNA in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pterostichus melas</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Carabidae) gut contents

The molecular analysis of predation through specific DNA amplification has been utilized extensively over the last decade, and has been shown to be fast and effective. However, it is necessary to evaluate the prey detectability half-life if we are to correctly infer the relevance of particular predators to particular pests and to accurately model the effect of biocontrol. We present here the design and analysis of a set of primers to amplify olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) DNA in predator gut contents, allowing fast evaluation of the digestion time. We modified the existing protocol by solubilizing the prey DNA directly from the gut, and we applied this modified protocol to demonstrate that Pterostichus melas, one of the most common carabids in olive groves in Italy, feeds on B. oleae pupae. After feeding carabids with a single pupa, traces of the pest were found to be detectable more than 20 h after ingestion. This method could also be applied to other predators to evaluate trophic interactions of the olive fruit fly. The relevance of generalist predation to the mortality of the pupal stage of B. oleae is of great economic interest since B. oleae causes serious damage during olive production, reducing the commercial value of olive oil and table olives.     

Sustainability of hill sheep flocks in England

Sheep production has been taking place on the hills and uplands of England for many centuries and has made a major contribution to environmental and social development and sustainability in these areas. Traditionally, hill farms have provided the crossbred breeding stock for the upland areas, older “cast” ewes for further breeding on improved grazing and naturally reared lamb meat. Under current economic conditions, there is a severe lack of profitability in these units with consequent reduction in sheep and shepherd numbers on the hills. Factors involved in the loss of profitability include persistently poor lamb prices and increased disease risk. Furthermore, 2012 will see the end of many of the current subsidy schemes and from 2010 there will also be the requirement for electronic tagging which requires extra expenses and administrative efforts. The only “growth industry” on this type of land seems to be grouse-shooting, which has low personnel requirement and few long-term social benefits. This paper reviews factors involved in this de-population of the hills, using examples from the Cheviot Hills of Northern England in particular, over the last 20 years and comments on the economic and management requirements necessary for continued sheep farming in these areas, as well as the animal welfare and social effects the trend for lower stock numbers will result in.     

Economics of sheep production

The aims of this paper are to give a brief overview of world sheep production at present and to describe in detail sheep production and profitability using New Zealand as a case example. Sheep numbers have been declining throughout the world over the last five years, resulting in decreased sheep meat production and a resultant shortage of supply. There is evidence that demand in the short-term will not be met by the major exporters (New Zealand and Australia). Although sheep numbers have declined in New Zealand, production has increased dramatically, with lambing percentages increasing from 98% in 1987 to 125% in 2008 and carcass weights from 14 to 17 kg, respectively. Despite this production increase, return on capital in the farming business has been around 1% per annum. However, property values have increased by around 10% offsetting the low return on capital from farming sheep. There are a number of challenges facing New Zealand's sheep farmers, namely changing land-use patterns, climate change and greenhouse gas mitigation, all of which will potentially impact on future profitability.     

Sero-prevalence,risk factors and distribution of sheep and goat pox in Amhara Region,Ethiopia

Background

Sheep pox and goat pox are contagious viral diseases of sheep and goats, respectively. The diseases result in substantial economic losses due to decreased milk and meat production, damage to hides and wool, and possible trade restriction. A study was undertaken in Amhara region of Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study design was used to estimate the sero-prevalence and identify associated risk factors, while retrospective study design was used to assess the temporal and spatial distribution of the disease. A total of 672 serum samples were collected from 30 Kebeles and tested using virus neutralization test.

Results

From a total of 672 sera tested, 104 (15.5%) were positive for sheep and goat pox virus antibody; from which 56 (17%) were sheep and 48 (14%) were goats. The diseases were prevalent in all study zones, the highest sero-prevalence was observed in South Gondar (20.9%) and the lowest in North Gondar and West Gojjam zones (11.9% each). From the potential risk factors considered (species, sex, age, agro-ecology and location); only sex and age were significantly associated (p?<?0.05) with the diseases in multivariable logistic regression. Female and young animals were at higher risk than their counterparts. From January 2010 to December 2014, a total of 366 outbreaks, 12,822 cases and 1480 deaths due to SP and 182 outbreaks, 10,066 cases and 997 deaths due to GP were recorded in Amhara National Regional State.

Conclusion

Both the serological and the outbreak data revealed that sheep and goat pox is one of the most prevalent and widespread diseases of sheep and goats in the study area. Hence, annual mass vaccination program must be implemented for economic and viable control of sheep and goat pox diseases in the Amhara region in particular and at a national level in general.

     

Sheep's and goat's dairy products in Italy: Technological,chemical, microbiological,and sensory aspects

Dairy sheep and goat breeding in Europe is most common around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in France, Greece, Italy, and Spain. The milk of sheep and goat is mainly reserved for cheese making that is usually conducted at farm level or in small local dairies. A large part of the production, principally for sheep milk cheese, is protected by the European Community (EC) regulations: the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and the Protected Geographic Indication (PGI). These designations constitute an element for the protection of the biodiversity, i.e. territory, animals, microbes, practices, and production systems. Microbiological features and diversity of sheep and goats milk compared to the cow's milk, give peculiar attributes to the cheeses. In several cases, rennet paste, produced from the abomasa of the suckling lambs or kids is used, strongly influencing chemical and sensory characteristics of the cheeses. In this review the technological, microbiological, chemical, and sensory aspects of the PDO and PGI Italian sheep and goat dairy products are reported.     

Rising burden of immature sheep ticks (Ixodes ricinus) on red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) chicks in the Scottish uplands

The sheep tick Ixodes ricinus (L.) (Acari: Ixodidae) is an ectoparasite of major economic and pathogenic importance in Scotland. Its distribution in the Scottish uplands is assumed to be governed by the abundance and distribution of its definitive hosts (deer and sheep) and climatic variables such as temperature and rainfall. As the numbers of its major host in Scotland, red deer, have increased dramatically and climatic conditions have become more favourable, the level of parasitism could have been expected to rise. We use data gathered from tick counts on over 4000 red grouse chicks Lagopus lagopus scoticus Latham (Galliformes: Tetraonidae) in various experiments over the past 19 years to ascertain whether the intensity and prevalence of parasitism has been increasing. From 1985 to 2003 the average tick burden of a parasitized red grouse chick has grown from 2.60 +/- 1.12 ticks per chick to 12.71 +/- 1.44. Over this period the percentage of chicks of a given brood parasitized has also increased from 4 +/- 2% to 92 +/- 3%. The possible implications of this increase in parasitism for red grouse production are discussed.     

North European short-tailed breeds of sheep: a review

The short-tailed sheep, native of an area stretching from Russia to Iceland, are generally considered a primitive type. These robust northern sheep seem to have been spread by Norse vikings to several countries in this area from the late eighth century to the middle of the eleventh century ad. They have several common characteristics in addition to the fluke-shaped and tapered short tail, such as a wide range of colour patterns, dual-coated wool and the ability to thrive under harsh environmental conditions, often in isolated marginal areas. While 34 short-tailed breeds of North European origin can still be identified, it is clear that their population sizes have declined in most cases and several of them are now rare and endangered. Although these breeds have mainly been confined to certain localities, some of them have gained considerable distribution due to their genetic merits, such as prolificacy. Of these, the Finnsheep and the Romanov are best known being exported to several countries in the world where their genetic material has been utilized through crossbreeding with local sheep. This has resulted in the production of some new synthetic breeds. Meat is now generally the main product of the North European short-tailed breeds and their crossbreds, whereas wool, skins and milk are normally regarded as byproducts, yet of considerable economic importance in some cases. Such breeds have clearly a role to play in sustainable grassland-based production systems in the future.     

Identification of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the Nicastrese Goat and Sardinia Sheep Mannose-Binding Lectin

This study was undertaken to detect polymorphisms in the goat and sheep mannose-binding lectin encoding gene (MBL2) and to explore allelic variability of this gene in these two species. The analysis and comparison of the sequences obtained from sheep showed 13 polymorphic sites, six in the promoter and seven in exon 1, four of which were of the missense type. In the goats, 12 polymorphic sites were detected, five intronic, five in the promoter, and one exonic. The exon site was responsible for an amino acid change. Mutations detected at the MBL2 locus in the sheep are of particular interest, being potentially responsible for the alterations of gene expression. A population survey involved 102 ewes of the Sardinian breed and 218 goats of the Nicastrese breed, all reared in southern Italy.     

A comparison of established and new approaches in ovine and bovine nuclear transfer

Several breakthroughs in nuclear transfer research were first achieved in sheep, although cattle soon became the main livestock species of interest. However, sheep still offer significant advantages both in basic and applied research. With increased interest in cloning of livestock, new approaches have been developed for both sheep and cattle nuclear transfer technology. These include methods for zona-free nuclear transfer that can be performed with or without the use of micromanipulator. Here we describe four different nuclear transfer methods including the traditional micromanipulation-assisted method in sheep, zona-free method in sheep in which the order of enucleation and nucleus delivery have been reversed ("reverse-order" cloning) and zona free manual cloning methods ("hand-made cloning") for embryonic and somatic cloning in cattle. The purpose of this paper is to encourage people to familiarize themselves with these different methods available and to help them choose and test the method most suitable for their particular circumstances.     

Review: Precision livestock farming,automats and new technologies: possible applications in extensive dairy sheep farming

Precision livestock farming (PLF) technologies are becoming increasingly common in modern agriculture. They are frequently integrated with other new technologies in order to improve human–livestock interactions, productivity and economical sustainability of modern farms. New systems are constantly being developed for concentrated farming operations as well as for extensive and pasture-based farming systems. The development of technologies for grazing animals is of particular interest for the Mediterranean extensive sheep farming sector. Dairy sheep farming is a typical production system of the area linked to its historical and cultural traditions. The area provides roughly 40% of the world sheep milk, having 27% of the milk-producing ewes. Developed countries of the area (France, Italy, Greece and Spain – FIGS) have highly specialized production systems improved through animal selection, feeding techniques and intensification of production. However, extensive systems are still practiced alongside intensive ones due to their lower input costs and better resilience to market fluctuations. In the current article, we evaluate possible PLF systems and their suitability to be incorporated in extensive dairy sheep farming as practiced in the FIGS countries. Available products include: electronic identification systems (now mandatory in the EU) such as ear tags, ruminal boluses and sub-cutaneous radio-frequency identification; on-animal sensors such as accelerometers, global positioning systems and social activity loggers; and stationary management systems such as walk-over-weights, automatic drafter (AD), virtual fencing and milking parlour-related technologies. The systems were considered according to their suitability for the management and business model common in dairy sheep farming. However, adoption of new technologies does not take place immediately in small and medium scale extensive farming. As sheep farmers usually belong to more conservative technology consumers, characterized by an average age of 60 and a very transparent community, the dynamics do not favour financial risk taking involved with new technologies. Financial barriers linked to production volumes and resource management of extensive farming are also a barrier for innovation. However, future prospectives could increase the importance of technology and promote its wider adoption. Trends such as global sheep milk economics, global warming, awareness to animal welfare, antibiotics resistance and European agricultural policies could influence the farming practices and stimulate wider adoption of PLF systems in the near future.     

New gene assignments using a complete, characterized sheep-hamster somatic cell hybrid panel

The generation and characterization of new sheep-hamster cell hybrids is reported from the fusion of sheep white blood cells with six different hamster auxotrophs. Selection from these and previously generated cell hybrids has led to the production of a panel of 30 hybrids covering the complete sheep genome of 28 chromosomes. Over half of the cell hybrids in this panel contain single sheep chromosomes. By complementation, the following new assignments have been made using the panel: phosphoribosyl N-formylglycinamide amidotransferase (PRFGA) to sheep chromosome (chr) 11; adenylosuccinate synthetase (ADSS) to sheep chr 12; adenylosuccinate lyase (ADSL) to sheep chr 3q; 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A synthase (HMGCS) to sheep chr 16; dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) to sheep chr 5; and adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) to sheep chr 14. The gene phosphoribosylaminoinidazole-carboxamide formyltransferase/Inosinicase (PRACFT) has now been regionally assigned to chr 2q. By isozyme analysis, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD) was assigned to sheep chr 12, anchoring the sheep syntenic group U1 to this chromosome, and mannose phosphate isomerase (MPI) was assigned to sheep chr 18. Furthermore, the chromosomal assignment of 110 microsatellites was confirmed using this cell panel.     

Animal husbandry: the period 1973-1995

In the last decade the intensification of the pig and poultry industries has continued with increases in production unit size and in efficiency. This has come about as a response to rising costs, competition and reasonable end-product prices. The dairy industry has also expanded output through increasing milk yield per cow, encouraged by favourable market support. However, efficiency of feed conversion to milk production is still not directly selected for in dairy cattle. Developments in beef cattle have been away from intensive systems of production in an effort to reduce capital expenditure and increases in sheep productivity have been largely through increased stocking rates, greater fertilizer use and better grazing systems. In the next decade there are many feasible technological advances awaiting application. The use of computer simulation is likely to assist in predicting quantitative and qualitative body compositional responses to nutrition and in increasing the efficiency of grass utilization, while microprocessor technology will be developed into artificial aids to the stockman. Studies of reproductive physiology will continue to help increase output, especially with pigs and sheep. The building of sophisticated housing is likely to be justified for pigs, poultry, dairy cattle and calves, but not for suckler beef and sheep. There is likely to be greater use of centralized breeding schemes for dairy cattle, beef cattle and sheep. The future application of technology will be limited by a number of socio-economic factors. For example, the use of milk quotas to control surplus production will act as a powerful economic constraint to increased milk production and the growing public concern over animal welfare, pollution and health aspects of animal produce will exert increasing pressure on certain systems of production.     

两种典型养鸡模式的能值分析

畜禽养殖的有机化过程被认为是实现养殖业持续发展与保障食品安全的重要途径.运用能值分析方法对两种典型养鸡模式——家庭有机饲养和林地散养进行了系统分析,并结合Castellini等人对意大利所做的同类研究(工业规模化笼养和草地散养)进行了横向对比.结果表明,林地散养生产系统的能值产出率为1.11,与家庭有机饲养系统相近,而在环境负载率和可持续发展能力方面的表现,均差于家庭有机饲养生产系统,说明林地散养模式尽管通过提高系统生产空间,理论上接近畜禽养殖的有机化理念,但由于大量的禽舍建筑、医药及其饲料等方面的外部资源输入,反而使得系统的环境负载率提高,可持续性大大下降.与意大利的结果比较发现,我国两个养殖系统的社会经济成本高、对外部不可再生资源的依赖程度较高,有机化目标并没有很好的实现.因此,我国现有的有机化畜禽养殖方式和外部制度都有待进一步改进和创新.     

Tick species infesting ruminants in Italy: ecological and bio-climatic factors affecting the different regional distribution

The distribution of tick species able to infest ruminants in Italy is briefly reviewed on the basis of published records and new data obtained in several surveys carried out mainly in northern Italy. The most frequent and abundant tick species found on ruminants throughout Italy are Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor marginatus, the first gradually replacing its association with sheep by the association with wild ruminants. Rhipicephalus bursa was mainly found on cattle while R. turanicus, which is considered one of the most sheep-associated species, was found only on wild boar. Haemaphysalis punctata, H. sulcata and H. parva are the other tick species quite frequently found on small ruminants when they are reared on pastures mainly in central-southern Italy. However, the land exploitation of these last decades has dramatically reduced the diversity of Italian environment and significantly modified the distribution and the abundance of ticks causing a heavy spread of the tick species characterized by a strong adaptability such as I. ricinus and R. sanguineus. If this trend continues, it is possible to hypothesise that few "resistant" tick species will gradually replace most of the others. This hypothesis seems to be confirmed by the high percentage observed for I. ricinus (57.4%) and R. sanguineus (35.73%) out of 8,712 specimens collected from several different hosts and from the environment.     

The feeding habits of wolves in relation to large prey availability in northern Italy

We investigated wolf feeding habits in relation to the abundance of wild and domestic ungulates to test the hypothesis that large prey are preferred and that their abundance affects the use of other food categories and diet breadth. We determined diet composition by scat analysis from December 1987 to December 1992. The research was carried out in three study areas located in northern Italy and characterised by marked differences in wild and domestic ungulate abundance. In study area A (low wild and domestic ungulate availability) fruits, livestock, other vertebrates and wild ungulates made up the bulk of the diet (71% in volume). In area B (high availability of livestock) wolf diet was mainly based on sheep and wild boars (80% in volume). In study area C (high availability of wild ungulates) wild ungulates were the main food of wolves (90% in volume). Significant differences were found among study areas in the mean percentage volume of all food categories and in particular for wild ungulates, livestock, other vertebrates and fruits (p < 0.0001 in all cases). Diet breadth decreased in areas with high availability of large wild and domestic herbivores. The use of livestock species was lower where there was high abundance, richness and diversity of the wild ungulate guild. Selection for wild ungulate species was partially affected by their abundance: however other factors as prey social behaviour, adaptability to the habitat (for introduced species), and body size could have an important role in species selection by wolves. In particular in area C wild boars were selected for, roe and red deers avoided, and fallow deers and mouflons used as available. Livestock species were used in relation to their abundance and accessibility, in particular sheep were selected for and cattle avoided; but if calves bom in the pastures were considered as the only available cattle, they were selected for and sheep were used as available. Large and in particular wild herbivores were found to be of great importance for the wolf population maintenance in northern Italy, one of the most important recovery areas of Mediterranean wolves.