Modulation of glucocorticoid receptor phosphorylation and transcriptional activity by a C-terminal-associated protein phosphatase

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is phosphorylated at three major sites on its N terminus (S203, S211, and S226), and phosphorylation modulates GR-regulatory functions in vivo. We examined the phosphorylation site interdependence, the contribution of the receptor C-terminal ligand-binding domain, and the participation of protein phosphatases in GR N-terminal phosphorylation and gene expression. We found that GR phosphorylation at S203 was greater when S226 was not phosphorylated and vice versa, indicative of intersite dependency. We also observed that a GR derivative lacking the ligand-binding domain, which no longer binds the heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) complex, exhibits increased GR phosphorylation at all three sites as compared with the full-length receptor. A GR mutation (F602S) that produces a receptor less dependent on Hsp90 for function as well as treatment with the Hsp90 inhibitor geldanamycin also increased basal GR phosphorylation at a subset of sites. Pharmacological inhibition of serine/threonine protein phosphatases increased GR basal phosphorylation. Likewise, a reduction in protein phosphatase 5 protein levels enhanced GR phosphorylation at a subset of sites and selectively reduced the induction of endogenous GR target genes. Together, our findings suggest that GR undergoes a phosphorylation/dephosphorylation cycle that maintains steady-state receptor phosphorylation at a low basal level in the absence of ligand. Our findings also suggest that the ligand-dependent increase in GR phosphorylation results, in part, from the dissociation of a ligand-binding domain-linked protein phosphatase(s), and that changes in the intracellular concentration of protein phosphatase 5 differentially affect GR target gene expression.     

GISP binding to TSG101 increases GABA receptor stability by down-regulating ESCRT-mediated lysosomal degradation

The neuron-specific G protein-coupled receptor interacting scaffold protein (GISP) is a multidomain, brain-specific protein derived from the A-kinase anchoring protein-9 gene. We originally isolated GISP as an interacting partner for the GABA(B) receptor subunit GABA(B1). Here, we show that the protein tumour susceptibility gene 101 (TSG101), an integral component of the endosomal sorting machinery that targets membrane proteins for lysosomal degradation, also interacts with GISP. TSG101 co-immunoprecipitates with GISP from adult rat brain, and using GST pull-downs, we identified that the eighth coiled-coiled region of GISP is critical for TSG101 association. Intriguingly, although there is no direct interaction between GISP and the GABA(B2) subunit, their co-expression in HEK293 cells increases levels of GABA(B2). GISP also inhibits TSG101-dependent GABA(B2) down-regulation in human embryonic kidney 293 cells whereas over-expression of a mutant GISP lacking the TSG101 binding domain has no effect on GABA(B2) degradation. These data suggest that GISP can function as a negative regulator of TSG101-dependent lysosomal degradation of transmembrane proteins in neurons to promote receptor stability.     

Neuregulin-induced ErbB3 downregulation is mediated by a protein stability cascade involving the E3 ubiquitin ligase Nrdp1

The molecular mechanisms underlying epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor tyrosine kinase down-regulation in response to growth factor binding are coming into focus and involve cbl-mediated receptor ubiquitination followed by lysosomal degradation. However, mechanisms underlying the ligand-stimulated degradation of the related receptor tyrosine kinases of the ErbB family do not involve cbl and remain unexplored. Previous studies have demonstrated that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Nrdp1 contributes to the maintenance of steady-state ErbB3 levels by mediating its growth factor-independent degradation. Here we demonstrate that treatment of cells with the ErbB3 ligand neuregulin-1 (NRG1) stabilizes the deubiquitinating enzyme USP8, which in turn stabilizes Nrdp1. The catalytic activity of USP8 is required for NRG1-induced Nrdp1 stabilization. We provide evidence that Akt-mediated phosphorylation of USP8 threonine residue T907 contributes to USP8 stability. Finally, we demonstrate that Nrdp1 or USP8 knockdown suppresses NRG1-induced ErbB3 ubiquitination and degradation in MCF7 breast cancer cells. We conclude that an NRG1-induced protein stability cascade involving USP8 and Nrdp1 mediates the down-regulation of ErbB3. Our observations raise the possibility that the ligand-induced augmentation of pathways involved in the maintenance of basal levels of receptor tyrosine kinases can contribute to ligand-stimulated down-regulation.     

An HRD/DER-independent ER quality control mechanism involves Rsp5p-dependent ubiquitination and ER-Golgi transport

There is increasing evidence that ubiquitination of receptors provides an important endosomal sorting signal. Here we report that mammalian class E vacuolar protein-sorting (vps) proteins recognize ubiquitin. Both tumor susceptibility gene 101 (TSG101)/human VPS (hVPS)28 and hepatocyte growth factor receptor substrate (Hrs) cytosolic complexes bind ubiquitin-agarose. TSG101 and hVPS28 are localized to endosomes that contain internalized EGF receptor and label strongly for ubiquitinated proteins. Microinjection of anti-hVPS28 specifically retards EGF degradation and leads to endosomal accumulation of ubiquitin-protein conjugates. Likewise, depletion of TSG101 impairs EGF trafficking and causes dramatic relocalization of ubiquitin to endocytic compartments. Similar defects are found in cells overexpressing Hrs, further emphasizing the links between class E protein function, receptor trafficking, and endosomal ubiquitination.     

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Protects Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen from Cullin 4A Protein-mediated Proteolysis

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is an essential component for DNA synthesis upon growth stimulation. It has been shown that phosphorylation of PCNA at Tyr-211 by the EGF receptor (EGFR) protects PCNA from polyubiquitylation and degradation, whereas blocking phosphorylation induces ubiquitylation-mediated degradation of the chromatin-bound, but not the -unbound, PCNA, and suppresses cell proliferation. However, the ubiquitin E3 ligase linking growth signaling to the proteolysis of PCNA and the underlying regulatory mechanism remain to be identified. Here we show that, in the absence of Tyr-211 phosphorylation, PCNA is subject to polyubiquitylation at Lys-164 by the CUL4A E3 ligase, resulting in the degradation of PCNA. Mutation of Lys-164 to arginine prevents PCNA ubiquitylation and rescues the degradation of the K164R/Y211F PCNA double mutant. Activation of EGFR inhibits the interaction of PCNA with CUL4A, whereas inhibition of EGFR leads to increased CUL4A-PCNA interaction and CUL4A-dependent ubiquitin-mediated degradation of PCNA. Substitution of endogenous PCNA with the Y211F mutant PCNA conveys enhanced sensitization to EGFR inhibition. Our findings identify CUL4A as the ubiquitin ligase linking the down-regulation of cell surface receptor tyrosine kinase to the nuclear DNA replication machinery in cancer cells.     

TSG101 expression in gynecological tumors: relationship to cyclin D1, cyclin E, p53 and p16 proteins.

Recent studies have shown that in vitro steady-state expression of the tumor susceptibility gene TSG101 is important for maintenance of genomic stability and cell cycle regulation. To determine the contribution of TSG101 expression in neoplastic formation, expression of TSG101 protein levels were evaluated in primary ovarian and endometrial adenocarcinoma tumors. Expression of TSG101 was also examined in various tumor cell lines (PA-1, AN3CA, HeLa, HS578T, HCT116). Full-length TSG101 protein was detected in these tumors and cell lines indicating that intragenic deletions were not characteristic of TSG101. In addition, TSG101 protein levels were compared with aberrations of prominent cell cycle regulatory molecules such as cyclin D1, cyclin E, p16 and p53. Reduced TSG101 protein was observed in 36% (8/22) of ovarian and 17% (1/6) of endometrial adenocarcinoma. Aberrant levels of p53, p16, cyclin D or E were comparable to published studies indicating that the clinicopathological distribution of these cases did not favor advanced stage tumors. Altogether, these findings suggest that a down-regulation of TSG101 is associated with tumorigenesis in a subgroup of gynecological tumors.     

Basal autophosphorylation of insulin receptor occurs preferentially on the receptor conformation exhibiting high affinity for insulin and stabilizes this conformation

Insulin signal transmission through the plasma membrane was studied in terms of relationship between basal autophosphorylation of the β-subunit and the ability by bind insulin by the -subunit of the insulin receptor. In a cell free system, receptors phosphorylated on tyrosine residues in the absence of insulin were separated from non-phosphorylated receptors using antiphosphotyrosine antibodies. Insulin binding assays were then performed on basally autophosphorylated and on non-phosphorylated receptors. We found that the tyrosine phosphorylated receptors, which corresponded to 25% of the total number of receptors, were accountable for 60–80% of insulin binding. Scatchard representation of binding data has shown that the plot corresponding to tyrosine phosphorylated receptors was localized above, and was steeper than the plot corresponding to non-phosphorylated receptors. These data make it likely that the conformation of -subunit which favours ligand binding is connected to the conformation of β-subunit which favours phosphate reception on tyrosine residues. Reciprocally, the high-affinity conformation of insulin receptor seems to become stabilized by basal autophosphorylation.     

Abnormal regulation of TSG101 in mice with spongiform neurodegeneration

Spongiform neurodegeneration is characterized by the appearance of vacuoles throughout the central nervous system. It has many potential causes, but the underlying cellular mechanisms are not well understood. Mice lacking the E3 ubiquitin ligase Mahogunin Ring Finger-1 (MGRN1) develop age-dependent spongiform encephalopathy. We identified an interaction between a “PSAP” motif in MGRN1 and the ubiquitin E2 variant (UEV) domain of TSG101, a component of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport I (ESCRT-I), and demonstrate that MGRN1 multimonoubiquitinates TSG101. We examined the in vivo consequences of loss of MGRN1 on TSG101 expression and function in the mouse brain. The pattern of TSG101 ubiquitination differed in the brains of wild-type mice and Mgrn1 null mutant mice: at 1 month of age, null mutant mice had less ubiquitinated TSG101, while in adults, mutant mice had more ubiquitinated, insoluble TSG101 than wild-type mice. There was an associated increase in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) levels in mutant brains. These results suggest that loss of MGRN1 promotes ubiquitination of TSG101 by other E3s and may prevent its disassociation from endosomal membranes or cause it to form insoluble aggregates. Our data implicate loss of normal TSG101 function in endo-lysosomal trafficking in the pathogenesis of spongiform neurodegeneration in Mgrn1 null mutant mice.     

Phosphorylation of Serine-515 Activates the Mammalian Maintenance Methyltransferase Dnmt1

DNA methyltransferase 1 methylates hemi-methylated CpG sites generated during DNA replication. Serine 515 of this enzyme has been shown to be phosphorylated. To explore the importance of S515 phosphorylation, we generated mutants of Dnmt1 which removed the phosphorylation potential (S515A) or mimic phosphoserine (S515E), purified the proteins from insect cells and analyzed their DNA methylation activity in vitro. The S515E mutant was found to be active, while S515A mutant had severe loss in activity when compared to the wild type protein. The loss of activity of the S515A variant was not due to loss of DNA binding capacity. Furthermore, we show that a phosphorylated peptide whose sequence mimics the surrounding of Ser515 (EKIYISPKIVVE) inhibited the activity of wild type Dnmt1 10-fold more than the non-phosphorylated peptide. The inhibition was specific for Dnmt1 and for the particular peptide sequence. Our data suggest that phosphorylation Ser515 is important for an interaction between the N-terminal domain of Dnmt1 and its catalytic domain that is necessary for activity and that this interaction is specifically disrupted by the phosphorylated peptide. We conclude that phosphorylation of Dnmt1 at Ser515 could be an important regulator of Dnmt1 activity during cell cycle and after proliferative stimuli.