Phylogeny and Rates of Molecular Evolution of Planktonic Foraminifera: SSU rDNA Sequences Compared to the Fossil Record

Planktonic foraminifera are marine protists, whose calcareous shells form oceanic sediments and are widely used for stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental analyses. The fossil record of planktonic foraminifera is compared here to their molecular phylogeny inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences. Eighteen partial SSU rDNA sequences from species representing all modern planktonic families (Globigerinidae, Hastigerinidae, Globorotaliidae, Candeinidae) were obtained and compared to seven sequences representing the major groups of benthic foraminifera. The phylogenetic analyses indicate a polyphyletic origin for the planktonic foraminifera. The Candeinidae, the Globorotaliidae, and the clade Globigerinidae + Hastigerinidae seem to have originated independently, at different epochs in the evolution of foraminifera. Inference of their relationships, however, is limited by substitution rates of heterogeneity. Rates of SSU rDNA evolution vary from 4.0 × 10⁻⁹ substitutions/site/year in the Globigerinidae to less than 1.0 × 10⁻⁹ substitutions/site/year in the Globorotaliidae. These variations may be related to different levels of adaptation to the planktonic mode of life. A clock-like evolution is observed among the Globigerinidae, for which molecular and paleontological data are congruent. Phylogeny of the Globorotaliidae is clearly biased by rapid rates of substitution in two species (G. truncatulinoides and G. menardii). Our study reveals differences in absolute rates of evolution at all taxonomic levels in planktonic foraminifera and demonstrates their effect on phylogenetic reconstructions. Received: 21 January 1997 / Accepted: 17 April 1997     

Phylogenetic Analysis Reveals Rapid Evolutionary Dynamics in the Plant RNA Virus Genus Tobamovirus

Early studies on the evolutionary dynamics of plant RNA viruses suggested that they may evolve more slowly than their animal counterparts, sometimes dramatically so. However, these estimates were often based on an assumption of virus–host codivergence over time-scales of many millions of years that is difficult to verify. An important example are viruses of the genus Tobamovirus, where the assumption of host–virus codivergence over 100 million years has led to rate estimates in the range of ~1 × 10⁻⁸ nucleotide substitutions per site, per year. Such a low evolutionary rate is in apparent contradiction with the ability of some tobamoviruses to quickly overcome inbred genetic resistance. To resolve how rapidly molecular evolution proceeds in the tobomaviruses, we estimated rates of nucleotide substitution, times to common ancestry, and the extent of congruence between virus and host phylogenies. Using Bayesian coalescent methods applied to time-stamped sequences, we estimated mean evolutionary rates at the nucleotide and amino acid levels of between 1 × 10⁻⁵ and 1.3 × 10⁻³ substitutions per site, per year, and hence similar to those seen in a broad range of animal and plant RNA viruses. Under these rates, a conservative estimate for the time of origin of the sampled tobamoviruses is within the last 100,000 years, and hence a far more recently than proposed assuming codivergence. This is supported by our cophylogeny analysis which revealed significantly discordant evolutionary histories between the tobamoviruses and the plant families they infect.     

Reduction of synonymous substitutions in the core protein gene of hepatitis C virus

Molecular evolutionary analyses were carried out to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships, the evolutionary rate, and the divergence times of hepatitis C viruses. Using the nucleotide sequences of the viruses isolated from various locations in the world, we constructed phylogenetic trees. The trees showed that strains isolated from a single location were not necessarily clustered as a group. This suggests that the viruses may be transferred with blood on a worldwide scale. We estimated the evolutionary rates at synonymous and nonsynonymous sites for all genes in the viral genome. We then found that the rate (1.35 × 10^–3 per site per year) at synonymous sites for the C gene was much smaller than those for the other genes (e.g., 6.29 × 10^–3 per site per year for the E gene). This indicates that a special type of functional constraint on synonymous substitutions may exist in the C gene. Because we found an open reading frame (ORF) with the C gene region, the possibility exists that synonymous substitutions for the C gene are constrained by the overlapping ORF whose reading frame is different from that of the C gene. Applying the evolutionary rates to the trees, we also suggest that major groups of hepatitis C viruses diverged from their common ancestor several hundred years ago. Correspondence to: T. Gojobori     

The Presence/Absence Polymorphism and Evolution of the p53 Pseudogene in the GenusMus

Distribution of the p53 pseudogene within the house mouse species (genusMus) was studied with polymerase chain reaction for 37 individuals that were caught at different localities. Pseudogene-specific fragments were detected in some, but not all, individuals ofMus musculussubspecies regardless of locality and type of subspecies. In addition, 3 of 7 individuals belonging to differentMusspecies carried the pseudogene in their genomes. These results show the existence of an interspecific presence/absence polymorphism of the p53 pseudogene in mice. Sequence analysis of 11 amplified 0.3-kb fragments suggested that the pseudogene originated in an ancestral mouse about 7 million years ago. Thus alleles with and without the p53 pseudogene have persisted through the mice speciation. The evolutionary rate for the p53 functional gene was also estimated to be about 3.3 × 10⁻⁹per nucleotide site per year.     

Bayesian Coalescent Analysis Reveals a High Rate of Molecular Evolution in GB Virus C

GB virus C/hepatitis G (GBV-C) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae. Despite replicating with an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, some previous estimates of rates of evolutionary change in GBV-C suggest that it fixes mutations at the anomalously low rate of ∼10⁻⁷ nucleotide substitution per site, per year. However, these estimates were largely based on the assumption that GBV-C and its close relative GBV-A (New World monkey GB viruses) codiverged with their primate hosts over millions of years. Herein, we estimated the substitution rate of GBV-C using the largest set of dated GBV-C isolates compiled to date and a Bayesian coalescent approach that utilizes the year of sampling and so is independent of the assumption of codivergence. This revealed a rate of evolutionary change approximately four orders of magnitude higher than that estimated previously, in the range of 10⁻² to 10⁻³ sub/site/year, and hence in line with those previously determined for RNA viruses in general and the Flaviviridae in particular. In addition, we tested the assumption of host-virus codivergence in GBV-A by performing a reconciliation analysis of host and virus phylogenies. Strikingly, we found no statistical evidence for host-virus codivergence in GBV-A, indicating that substitution rates in the GB viruses should not be estimated from host divergence times.     

Mathematical Elegance with Biochemical Realism: The Covarion Model of Molecular Evolution

There is an apparent paradox in our understanding of molecular evolution. Current biochemically based models predict that evolutionary trees should not be recoverable for divergences beyond a few hundred million years. In practice, however, trees often appear to be recovered from much older times. Mathematical models, such as those assuming that sites evolve at different rates [including a Γ distribution of rates across sites (RAS)] may in theory allow the recovery of some ancient divergences. However, such models require that each site maintain its characteristic rate over the whole evolutionary period. This assumption, however, contradicts the knowledge that tertiary structures diverge with time, invalidating the rate-constancy assumption of purely mathematical models. We report here that a hidden Markov version of the covarion model can meet both biochemical and statistical requirements for the analysis of sequence data. The model was proposed on biochemical grounds and can be implemented with only two additional parameters. The two hidden parts of this model are the proportion of sites free to vary (covarions) and the rate of interchange between fixed sites and these variable sites. Simulation results are consistent with this approach, providing a better framework for understanding anciently diverged sequences than the standard RAS models. However, a Γ distribution of rates may approximate a covarion model and may possibly be justified on these grounds. The accurate reconstruction of older divergences from sequence data is still a major problem, and molecular evolution still requires mathematical models that also have a sound biochemical basis. Received: 13 February 2001 / Accepted: 22 May 2001     

Molecular Evolution of Viruses of the Family Filoviridae Based on 97 Whole-Genome Sequences

Viruses in the Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus genera (family Filoviridae) have been associated with large outbreaks of hemorrhagic fever in human and nonhuman primates. The first documented cases occurred in primates over 45 years ago, but the amount of virus genetic diversity detected within bat populations, which have recently been identified as potential reservoir hosts, suggests that the filoviruses are much older. Here, detailed Bayesian coalescent phylogenetic analyses are performed on 97 whole-genome sequences, 55 of which are newly reported, to comprehensively examine molecular evolutionary rates and estimate dates of common ancestry for viruses within the family Filoviridae. Molecular evolutionary rates for viruses belonging to different species range from 0.46 × 10⁻⁴ nucleotide substitutions/site/year for Sudan ebolavirus to 8.21 × 10⁻⁴ nucleotide substitutions/site/year for Reston ebolavirus. Most recent common ancestry can be traced back only within the last 50 years for Reston ebolavirus and Zaire ebolavirus species and suggests that viruses within these species may have undergone recent genetic bottlenecks. Viruses within Marburg marburgvirus and Sudan ebolavirus species can be traced back further and share most recent common ancestors approximately 700 and 850 years before the present, respectively. Examination of the whole family suggests that members of the Filoviridae, including the recently described Lloviu virus, shared a most recent common ancestor approximately 10,000 years ago. These data will be valuable for understanding the evolution of filoviruses in the context of natural history as new reservoir hosts are identified and, further, for determining mechanisms of emergence, pathogenicity, and the ongoing threat to public health.     

A testis‐specific gene within a widely expressed gene: Contrasting evolutionary patterns of two differentially expressed mammalian proteins encoded by a single gene,CAMK4

Understanding the patterns of genetic variations within fertility‐related genes and the evolutionary forces that shape such variations is crucial in predicting the fitness landscapes of subsequent generations. This study reports distinct evolutionary features of two differentially expressed mammalian proteins [CaMKIV (Ca²⁺/calmodulin‐dependent protein kinase IV) and CaS (calspermin)] that are encoded by a single gene, CAMK4. The multifunctional CaMKIV, which is expressed in multiple tissues including testis and ovary, is evolving at a relatively low rate (0.46–0.64 × 10^?9 nucleotide substitutions/site/year), whereas the testis‐specific CaS gene, which is predominantly expressed in post‐meiotic cells, evolves at least three to four times faster (1.48–1.98 × 10^?9 substitutions/site/year). Concomitantly, maximum‐likelihood‐based selection analyses revealed that the ubiquitously expressed CaMKIV is constrained by intense purifying selection and, therefore, remained functionally highly conserved throughout the mammalian evolution, whereas the testis‐specific CaS gene is under strong positive selection. The substitution rates of different mammalian lineages within both genes are positively correlated with GC content, indicating the possible influence of GC‐biased gene conversion on the estimated substitution rates. The observation of such unusually high GC content of the CaS gene (≈74%), particularly in the lineage that comprises the bovine species, suggests the possible role of GC‐biased gene conversion in the evolution of CaS that mimics positive selection.     

Feeding biology of Diplogasteritus nudicapitatus and Rhabditis curvicaudata (Nematoda) related to food concentration and temperature,in sewage treatment plants

The feeding biology of two bacterivorous nematodes found in percolating filter-bed sewage treatment plants were investigated in relation to food supply and temperature at all developmental stages. Temperature profoundly affected feeding activity and ingestion rates. As temperature increased ingestion rates increased. The larger species, Rhabditis curvicaudata possessed lower rates of pharyngeal pulsation than the small species Diplogasteritus nudicapitatus. R. curvicaudata reduced feeding activity as bacterial density fell from 8x10⁹ cells ml^-1 to 5x10⁷ cells ml^-1, below which it ceased feeding. D. nudicapitatus pumped continuously at a more or less constant rate irrespective of food density. The evolutionary and ecological aspects of these two patterns of feeding behaviour are discussed.     

Faster evolutionary rates in endosymbiotic bacteria than in cospeciating insect hosts

The hypothesis of a universal molecular clock holds that divergent lineages exhibit approximately constant rates of nucleotide substitution over evolutionary time for a particular macromolecule. We compare divergences of ribosomal DNA for aphids (Insecta) and Buchnera, the maternally transmitted, endosymbiotic bacteria that have cospeciated with aphids since initially infecting them over 100 million years ago. Substitution rates average 36 times greater for Buchnera than for their aphid hosts for regions of small-subunit rDNA that are homologous for prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Aphids exhibit 18S rDNA substitution rates that are within the range observed in related insects. In contrast, 16S rDNA evolves about twice as fast in Buchnera as in related free-living bacterial lineages. Nonetheless, the difference between Buchnera and aphids is much greater, suggesting that rates may be generally higher in bacteria. This finding adds to evidence that molecular clocks are only locally rather than universally valid among taxonomic groups. It is consistent with the hypothesis that rates of sequence evolution depend on generation time.     

Radiation of the endemic genus Dendroseris (Asteraceae) on the Juan Fernandez Islands: evidence from sequences of the its regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA

Phylogenetic relationships among nine of the 11 species of the endemic genus Dendroseris on the Juan Fernandez Islands were inferred from nucleotide sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) of the 18-26S nuclear ribosomal DNA. Sequences were determined for 15 populations of Dendroseris and one population for each of two outgroups from the genera Sonchus and Sventenia. Little length variation was detected in the ITS regions of Dendroseris, with ITS 1 253 or 254 bp long and ITS 2 224 or 225 bp. The sequence data provide strong support for the holophyly of Dendroseris despite the distinct morphological differences among the three subgenera. The molecular data also indicate that subg. Dendroseris and Phoenicoseris are holophyletic, but do not support holophyly of subg. Rea. The ITS sequences did not resolve relationships among subgenera, supporting the hypothesis of rapid adaptive radiation of Dendroseris on the islands. Relative rate tests indicate that rates of nucleotide substitutions in the ITS regions are not significantly different among the different lineages of Dendroseris following adaptive radiation. Comparisons of average pairwise sequence divergence of Dendroseris species in the ITS regions and chloroplast genome indicated that ITS sequences have evolved about 38 times faster than cpDNA in the genus. Rates of ITS sequence divergence of Dendroseris were estimated to be faster than (3.94 ± 0.10) × 10^-9 per site per year, and likely (6.06 ±0.15) × 10^-9 per site per year.     

Mutation and Evolutionary Rates in Adélie Penguins from the Antarctic

Precise estimations of molecular rates are fundamental to our understanding of the processes of evolution. In principle, mutation and evolutionary rates for neutral regions of the same species are expected to be equal. However, a number of recent studies have shown that mutation rates estimated from pedigree material are much faster than evolutionary rates measured over longer time periods. To resolve this apparent contradiction, we have examined the hypervariable region (HVR I) of the mitochondrial genome using families of Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) from the Antarctic. We sequenced 344 bps of the HVR I from penguins comprising 508 families with 915 chicks, together with both their parents. All of the 62 germline heteroplasmies that we detected in mothers were also detected in their offspring, consistent with maternal inheritance. These data give an estimated mutation rate (μ) of 0.55 mutations/site/Myrs (HPD 95% confidence interval of 0.29–0.88 mutations/site/Myrs) after accounting for the persistence of these heteroplasmies and the sensitivity of current detection methods. In comparison, the rate of evolution (k) of the same HVR I region, determined using DNA sequences from 162 known age sub-fossil bones spanning a 37,000-year period, was 0.86 substitutions/site/Myrs (HPD 95% confidence interval of 0.53 and 1.17). Importantly, the latter rate is not statistically different from our estimate of the mutation rate. These results are in contrast to the view that molecular rates are time dependent.     

Slow Evolutionary Rate of GB Virus C/Hepatitis G Virus

With the aim of elucidating evolutionary features of GB virus C/hepatitis G virus (GBV-C/HGV), molecular evolutionary analyses were conducted using the entire coding region of this virus. In particular, the rate of nucleotide substitution for this virus was estimated to be less than 9.0 × 10⁻⁶ per site per year, which was much slower than those for other RNA viruses. The phylogenetic tree reconstructed for GBV-C/HGV, by using GB virus A (GBV-A) as outgroup, indicated that there were three major clusters (the HG, GB, and Asian types) in GBV-C/HGV, and the divergence between the ancestor of GB- and Asian-type strains and that of HG-type strains first took place more than 7000–10,000 years ago. The slow evolutionary rate for GBV-C/HGV suggested that this virus cannot escape from the immune response of the host by means of producing escape mutants, implying that it may have evolved other systems for persistent infection. Received: 2 June 1998 / Accepted: 8 August 1998     

The Comparative Genomics of Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Subgroups A and B: Genetic Variability and Molecular Evolutionary Dynamics

Genomic variation and related evolutionary dynamics of human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a common causative agent of severe lower respiratory tract infections, may affect its transmission behavior. RSV evolutionary patterns are likely to be influenced by a precarious interplay between selection favoring variants with higher replicative fitness and variants that evade host immune responses. Studying RSV genetic variation can reveal both the genes and the individual codons within these genes that are most crucial for RSV survival. In this study, we conducted genetic diversity and evolutionary rate analyses on 36 RSV subgroup B (RSV-B) whole-genome sequences. The attachment protein, G, was the most variable protein; accordingly, the G gene had a higher substitution rate than other RSV-B genes. Overall, less genetic variability was found among the available RSV-B genome sequences than among RSV-A genome sequences in a comparable sample. The mean substitution rates of the two subgroups were, however, similar (for subgroup A, 6.47 × 10⁻⁴ substitutions/site/year [95% credible interval {CI 95%}, 5.56 × 10⁻⁴ to 7.38 × 10⁻⁴]; for subgroup B, 7.76 × 10⁻⁴ substitutions/site/year [CI 95%, 6.89 × 10⁻⁴ to 8.58 × 10⁻⁴]), with the time to their most recent common ancestors (TMRCAs) being much lower for RSV-B (19 years) than for RSV-A (46.8 years). The more recent RSV-B TMRCA is apparently the result of a genetic bottleneck that, over longer time scales, is still compatible with neutral population dynamics. Whereas the immunogenic G protein seems to require high substitution rates to ensure immune evasion, strong purifying selection in conserved proteins such as the fusion protein and nucleocapsid protein is likely essential to preserve RSV viability.     

Genome-wide investigation reveals high evolutionary rates in annual model plants

Background  

Rates of molecular evolution vary widely among species. While significant deviations from molecular clock have been found in many taxa, effects of life histories on molecular evolution are not fully understood. In plants, annual/perennial life history traits have long been suspected to influence the evolutionary rates at the molecular level. To date, however, the number of genes investigated on this subject is limited and the conclusions are mixed. To evaluate the possible heterogeneity in evolutionary rates between annual and perennial plants at the genomic level, we investigated 85 nuclear housekeeping genes, 10 non-housekeeping families, and 34 chloroplast genes using the genomic data from model plants including Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago truncatula for annuals and grape (Vitis vinifera) and popular (Populus trichocarpa) for perennials.     

Genetic Variation in a Cline in a Living Intertidal Snail Arose in the Neogastropoda over 100 Million Years Ago

To understand how species adapt and evolve it is necessary to appreciate the relationship between genetic variation and the environment. Here, the fossil record and molecular data from different lineages of the marine Gastropoda are used to understand the evolution of genetic variations found in the nuclear gene for mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase (mMDH; EC 1.1.1.37) in the living intertidal Muricid snail, Nucella lapillus. Assuming a molecular clock, DNA sequences of mMDH indicate that two variants found in N. lapillus, mMDH⁹ and mMDH¹⁰, may have arisen as long as 144 MY (million years) ago and at least prior to the evolution of the Muricidae approximately 112–90 MY ago. The Muricidae contain by far the greatest majority of the Neogastropoda specialized for life in the intertidal habitat. In N. lapillus the mMDH⁹ and mMDH¹⁰ variants covary with variations in other biochemically defined loci, inherited phenotypic traits (shell shape and physiology) and karyotype frequencies to differentiate two distinct nuclear haplotypes that are associated with different temperature environments. The variations in shell shape that are associated with the haplotypes of N. lapillus represent adaptations to temperature stress and similar variations occur in other related intertidal molluscs whose lineages are much older than Nucella, which arose around 25 million years ago. It is suggested that the divergence of the mMDH variants found in N. lapillus may reflect an ancient genetic event, such as a chromosomal mutation, perhaps involving variation in other linked traits that together became important in the subsequent evolution of the marine Gastropoda.     

Comparative Analyses of Coding and Noncoding DNA Regions Indicate that Acropora (Anthozoa: Scleractina) Possesses a Similar Evolutionary Tempo of Nuclear vs. Mitochondrial Genomes as in Plants

Evidence suggests that the mitochondrial (mt)DNA of anthozoans is evolving at a slower tempo than their nuclear DNA; however, parallel surveys of nuclear and mitochondrial variations and calibrated rates of both synonymous and nonsynonymous substitutions across taxa are needed in order to support this scenario. We examined species of the scleractinian coral genus Acropora, including previously unstudied species, for molecular variations in protein-coding genes and noncoding regions of both nuclear and mt genomes. DNA sequences of a calmodulin (CaM)-encoding gene region containing three exons, two introns and a 411-bp mt intergenic spacer (IGS) spanning the cytochrome b (cytb) and NADH 2 genes, were obtained from 49 Acropora species. The molecular evolutionary rates of coding and noncoding regions in nuclear and mt genomes were compared in conjunction with published data, including mt cytochrome b, the control region, and nuclear Pax-C introns. Direct sequencing of the mtIGS revealed an average interspecific variation comparable to that seen in published data for mt cytb. The average interspecific variation of the nuclear genome was two to five times greater than that of the mt genome. Based on the calibration of the closure of Panama Isthmus (3.0 mya) and closure of the Tethy Seaway (12 mya), synonymous substitution rates ranged from 0.367% to 1.467% Ma⁻¹ for nuclear CaM, which is about 4.8 times faster than those of mt cytb (0.076–0.303% Ma⁻¹). This is similar to the findings in plant genomes that the nuclear genome is evolving at least five times faster than those of mitochondrial counterparts. I-Ping Chen and Chung-Yu Tang, co-first author (equal contribution)     

额尔古纳河流域秋季浮游植物群落结构特征

2008年8-9月对额尔古纳河流域5个重要水体呼伦湖、乌兰泡、二卡湿地、伊敏河和哈乌尔河进行浮游植物调查,结果显示：1）共鉴定浮游植物8门82属177种（含变种）,以绿藻和硅藻种类最多,绿藻有36属77种,占43.5%,硅藻21属54种,占30.5%;其次是蓝藻,13属26种,占14.7%;裸藻4属11种,占6.2%;其他藻类仅占5.1%;2）在呼伦湖共有64属121种,乌兰泡47属88种,二卡湿地62属116种,伊敏河41属59种,哈乌尔河32属54种;优势度分析显示：呼伦湖与乌兰泡优势种为蓝藻和绿藻,二卡湿地为硅藻与隐藻,伊敏河与哈乌尔河为硅藻;蓝藻个体密度在乌兰泡与呼伦湖最大,分别为5.17?106 ind./L和4.01?106 ind./L,而硅藻密度则在二卡湿地、伊敏河与哈乌尔河占优势,分别为1.40?106 ind./L、1.84?105 ind./L与4.89?105 ind./L;此外,聚类分析显示5个水体的浮游植物群落按结构特征可分为两大类;3）与历史记录相比,呼伦湖的优势种转变为细胞较小的坚实微囊藻(M. firma)与不定微囊藻(M. incerta),这种小型化的趋势表明呼伦湖水体富营养化程度加剧;4）综合多种指标对水质状况进行评估：呼伦湖、乌兰泡为中-富营养水体,二卡湿地为中营养水体,伊敏河与哈乌尔河属于贫-中营养水体。     

Measurement of airborne fungal spore dispersal from three types of flooring materials

Research was conducted in an experimental roomto measure the effect of human activity onairborne dispersal of settled fungal sporesfrom carpet and vinyl tile flooring. A seriesof experiments were conducted in whichcommercial loop pile carpet, residential cutpile carpet, or vinyl tile installed in theexperimental room were contaminated with Penicillium chrysogenum spores. The flooringmaterials were contaminated to two differentlevels (10⁶ and 10⁷ colony formingunits per square meter [c.f.u./m²] offlooring surface). Airborne culturable andtotal P. chrysogenum concentrations weremeasured using Andersen single-stage impactorsamplers and Burkard personal slide impactorsamplers, respectively. Bioaerosolconcentrations were measured at floor level, 1meter, and the adult breathing zone (1.5 meter)heights before and after human activityconsisting of walking in a prescribed patternfor 1 minute in the room. Airborne P.chrysogenum concentrations were greater withthe higher surface loading for all threeflooring materials. For all flooring materialsthere was no significant difference betweensampler locations, although the data from the1-meter location were the highest, followed bythe floor level and the breathing zonelocations, respectively. The data from theseexperiments indicate that while a very smallfraction of culturable P. chrysogenumspores present on flooring materials wereaerosolized by walking, relatively highairborne concentrations of spores maybere-entrained from contaminated materials. Theairborne P. chrysogenum concentrationswere significantly higher after walking on cutpile carpet than with the other two flooringmaterials at both contamination levels, withthe differences in concentration often 2orders of magnitude. No differences weremeasured in airborne culturable P.chrysogenum between vinyl flooring and looppile carpet at both contamination levels. Total spore data from the experiments with the10⁷ c.f.u./m² contamination levelindicated that walking on loop pile carpetproduced higher airborne spore concentrationsthan similarly contaminated vinyl tile althoughno significant difference was observed at the10⁶ c.f.u./m² level.     

Mutation rate and pattern of microsatellites in common carp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyprinus carpio</Emphasis> L.)

Microsatellites are popular molecular markers in genetic and evolutionary studies. Their mutational dynamics have been extensively studied in humans and fruit flies, but few data were available in fish. By genotyping 55 individuals of a F1 pedigree, we investigated the mutation rates and patterns of 49 microsatellites in one of the most important fresh water fish species, the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). The overall mutation rate of the 49 loci was 5.56×10⁻⁴/locus/generation (95% confidence interval 1.52×10⁻⁴ and 1.63×10⁻³). The change of allele size was between +2 to −5 repeat units, assuming that the mutation allele arose from the parental allele most similar in size to the mutant.