Genetic differentiation among host-associated Alebra leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

The limited importance ascribed to sympatric speciation processes via host race formation is partially due to the few cases of host races that have been reported among host populations. This work sheds light on the taxonomy of Alebra leafhoppers and examines the possible existence of host races among host-associated populations. The species of this genus show varying degrees of host association with deciduous trees and shrubs and, frequently, host populations of uncertain taxonomic status coexist and occasionally become pests. Allozyme electrophoresis of 21 Greek populations including sympatric, local and geographically distant samples collected on 13 different plant species, show that they represent at least five species: A. albostriella Fallén, A. viridis (Rey) (sensu Gillham), A. wahlbergi Boheman and two new species. Of these, one is associated to Quercus frainetto and other is specific to Crataegus spp. Significant genetic differences among sympatric and local host populations were found only in A. albostriella, between populations on Turkey oak, beech and common alder. It is suggested that the last two of these host populations may represent different host races. The results show that both the host plant and geographical distance affect the patterns of differentiation in the genus. The formation of some species seems to have been the result of allopatric speciation events while, for others, their origin can be equally explained either by sympatric or allopatric speciation.     

Potential host plants of Corythucha arcuata (Het., Tingidae) in Europe: a laboratory study

Abstract:  The oak lace bug Corythucha arcuata (Say) (Het., Tingidae), native to North America, was found in Europe on Quercus robur L. and other oaks in the spring of 2000. The potential host plant range of this species in Europe and its development time were investigated in a laboratory study. An assay was performed on leaf cuts of different plant species. On the deciduous European oaks ( Q. robur , Quercus pubescens Willd, Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Liebl., Quercus cerris L.), as well as Rubus ulmifolius Schott. and Rubus idaeus L., most of the lace bugs (>50%) reached the adult stage; on Castanea sativa Mill., Rubus caesius L. and Rosa canina L., a reduced number of individuals (<25%) reached the adult stage. No nymphs survived on Quercus rubra L. (mentioned in literature as a host plant), on the evergreen oaks Quercus suber L. and Quercus ilex L., on Malus domestica Borkh. and four tested maple species. On plant species where the lace bug reached the adult stage, the development time varied from 13 to 27 days. On European deciduous oak species, the development time was longer on leaves taken in late summer (September) than on those of late spring (June); on the contrary, such differences were not observed on Rubus species, and Castanea sativa .     

Geographic variation in male courtship acoustics and genetic divergence of populations of the Cotesia flavipes species complex

Courtship behaviors of insect populations can vary across the range of a species. Populations exhibiting divergent courtship behavior may indicate genetic divergence or cryptic species. Courtship acoustic signals produced by male wing fanning and genetic structure (using amplified fragment length polymorphisms) were examined for seven allopatric populations of the Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) species complex, using four C. sesamiae (Cameron) and three C. flavipes Cameron populations. Members of this species complex parasitize lepidopteran pests in gramineous crops including sugarcane, maize, and rice . Significant variation was detected in courtship acoustic signals and genetic structure among populations of both species. For C. sesamiae, courtship acoustic signals varied more between populations of two biotypes that were collected near an area of sympatry. The two biotypes of C. sesamiae were also genetically divergent. For C. flavipes, significant differences in acoustic signals and genetic structure occurred among allopatric populations; these differences support the recent designation of one population as a new species. Courtship acoustics play a role in reproductive isolation in this species complex, and are likely used in conjunction with chemical signals. Ecological factors such as host range and host plant use may also influence the divergence of both courtship acoustic signals and genetic structure among populations in the C. flavipes complex.     

Assessment of genetic relationships and population discrimination among Fagus sylvatica L. by RAPD

 We assessed the genetic relationships between members of the Fagaceae family by RAPDs in order to better ascertain the taxonomic status of a very particular population of Fagus sylvatica, the ‘tortuosa’ variety. Intra- and inter-population Nei and Li’s mean genetic distances were compared, and the genetic relationships between individuals were clarified on dendrograms by the Neighbor joining method. RAPD analysis was first conducted on three species from three genera, Quercus petraea, Castanea sativa, and Fagus sylvatica, in order to develop an efficient RAPD protocol. The variety level was then studied, and a general tendency of the individuals to cluster by variety was observed. Individuals also clustered by geographic locations, but the genetic distances between populations were not correlated to the distances between sites. Finally, we compared the common beech and ‘tortuosa’ varieties from two different locations, Verzy and Süntel. Both populations from one location were closer than the same variety from two sites. This last result is in agreement with those previously obtained with isozymes. Hypotheses concerning the origin of the ‘tortuosa’ variety are discussed. Received: 9 January 1998 / Accepted: 25 February 1998     

The evolution of release and advertisement calls in green toads (Bufo viridis complex)

In the present paper we tested the hypothesis that differences in the acoustic communication system of diploid and tetraploid green toads ( Bufo viridis complex) might be due to selection for reproductive character displacement. We recorded two acoustic signals of the toad repertoire − the advertisement call (a long range mate-attracting signal) and the release call (a short-range signal mediating male–male interactions) − from six sympatric Central Asian populations (three diploid and three tetraploid populations) as well as from three allopatric diploid populations from Italy, and compared their patterns of variation with the pattern of among-population genetic distances. Although release and advertisement calls share the same morpho-physiological constraints, they show significantly different patterns of variation. Release calls vary congruently with the pattern of genetic distances, suggesting that mutation and genetic drift have been the major forces responsible for their change both in time and space. By contrast, the pattern of advertisement-call variation is not consistent with the phylogeny of the group, because the advertisement calls of Asian diploid and tetraploid populations differ from each other more than their genetic distances would predict. These results strongly support the hypothesis that selection acted on the advertisement calls of either or both Asian taxa , possibly, to favour reproductive isolation.  © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 77, 379–391.     

Beyond the river: underlying determinants of population acoustic signal variability in Amazonian direct-developing Allobates (Anura: Dendrobatoidea)

The multidimensional nature of animal signals makes acoustic traits potentially subject to different determinants. The Amazonian frogs Allobates nidicola and Allobates masniger have an allopatric distribution, occurring along the left and right sides of the Madeira River, respectively. These are two sister, phenotypically similar species whose eggs are deposited and develop entirely in a terrestrial nest. In this study, we analyzed 2,000 advertisement calls recorded from ten localities across Central Amazonia, in order to understand the role of determinants of acoustic signal variability at the population and species levels. We assessed, through nested analyses of variance, the differentiation of six characters of this sexual signal among populations and between interfluves. Moreover, we measured the degree of variability and the extent of temperature- and body size-induced plasticity in call traits. We also tested for isolation-by-distance effects in phenotypic differentiation through Mantel tests. Coefficients of variation were higher among than within populations for all call measurements. Spectral call properties were more distinctive than temporal traits among populations and species. Advertisement call traits showed strong temperature-induced plasticity (e.g., 45?% of the variation in note duration). In contrast, the effects of body size were restricted to frequency-related characters. The river barrier effect was significant among all the acoustic variables analyzed even after controlling for male body size. Geography (sampling locality) and body size also jointly affected call variability. No correlation between geographical and acoustic distances among populations was observed, suggesting that local stabilizing selective pressures have an important role in the evolution of call differentiation.     

Individual Variation in Advertisement Calls of Territorial Male Green Frogs, Rana clamitans: Implications for Individual Discrimination

Individuals of many territorial species discriminate between familiar territorial neighbors and unfamiliar strangers based on individual differences in acoustic signals. Many anuran amphibians are territorial and use primarily acoustic communication during social interactions, but evidence for acoustically mediated individual discrimination is available only for one species. As a first step in research designed to investigate individual discrimination in a second species of territorial frog, we examined patterns of within-male and among-male variability in 198 advertisement calls of 20 male green frogs, Rana clamitans . The aim was to determine which acoustic properties could be used by males to recognize their territorial neighbors and to estimate limits of reliability afforded by these properties for identifying different neighbors. All of the call properties that we examined exhibited significant inter-individual variation. Discriminant function analyses assigned between 52% and 100% of calls to the correct individual, depending on sample size and the call properties included in the model. This suggests that there is sufficient among-male variability to statistically identify individuals by their advertisement calls. The call properties of fundamental frequency and dominant frequency contributed the most towards discrimination among individuals. Based on their natural history and behavior and the results reported here, we suggest that male green frogs likely discriminate between strangers and adjacently territorial neighbors based on individual variation in advertisement calls.     

The potential influence of morphology on the evolutionary divergence of an acoustic signal

The evolution of acoustic behaviour and that of the morphological traits mediating its production are often coupled. Lack of variation in the underlying morphology of signalling traits has the potential to constrain signal evolution. This relationship is particularly likely in field crickets, where males produce acoustic advertisement signals to attract females by stridulating with specialized structures on their forewings. In this study, we characterize the size and geometric shape of the forewings of males from six allopatric populations of the black field cricket (Teleogryllus commodus) known to have divergent advertisement calls. We sample from each of these populations using both wild‐caught and common‐garden‐reared cohorts, allowing us to test for multivariate relationships between wing morphology and call structure. We show that the allometry of shape has diverged across populations. However, there was a surprisingly small amount of covariation between wing shape and call structure within populations. Given the importance of male size for sexual selection in crickets, the divergence we observe among populations has the potential to influence the evolution of advertisement calls in this species.     

针叶小爪螨不同种群在针叶树和阔叶树上的生长发育和繁殖及其生殖隔离

报道丁针叶小爪螨Oligonychus ununguis (Jacobi）的4个种群在针叶树和阔叶树上的生长发育和繁殖及其生殖隔离的研究结果。饲养试验证明,针叶树(杉木)种群不能在板栗、麻栎等阔叶树上存活;阔叶树(板栗、麻栎)种群也不能在杉木、黑松、赤松等针叶树上存活。交配试验证明,针叶树种群和阔叶树种群虽有交配行为,但不能正常繁衍后代,两种群间存在着明显的生殖隔离。据此认为针叶树种群和阔叶树种群有可能为两个不同种。     

湖北宜昌大老岭桦、栎、栗类林演替研究

 植物群落的演替,在组成和结构上体现为群落组份种的生长、死亡和依次更替的过程,这样,现阶段的群落组成和结构与群落演替阶段之间必然存在着一定的相互关系。本文通过对群落组份种的大小结构分析来确定群落的演替趋势。湖北、宜昌大老岭的桦、栎、栗为优势种的9个群落类型的大小结构分析表明：植物种群的大小结构有三种类型：(1)直线分布型;(2)负指数分布型;(3)钟形分布型。种群的大小结构分析是群落演替研究中一有效的方法。结果表明：在大老岭,亮叶桦是衰退种群,是一假先锋种,在以后几十年将被栎、栗的种群替代,并形成以栎、栗为优势种的顶极群落。     

Genetic control and evolution of acoustic signals in planthoppers (Homoptera: Delphacidae)

Acoustic signals are part of the specific mate recognition system of planthoppers. The genetic control of acoustic signal characters was studied in the planthopperRibautodelphax imitans. Artificial selection for interpulse interval in the female call revealed a large additive genetic component for this polygenic character. Other female call characters showed a correlated response. Some male call characters also appeared to be genetically correlated with the female character selected for, despite the rather different structure of male and female calls. Parent-offspring regression provided significant heritability estimates for those male call characters that also responded to artificial selection in the female call, one of which appeared to be influenced by sex-linked genes. It is argued that the differentiation of this mate recognition system in planthopper populations and species could be the result of founder effects, enabled by the genetic plasticity of the call characters and the existence of a wing length dimorphism in these animals.     

Direct mate choice for simultaneous acoustic and visual courtship displays in the damselfish, Dascyllus albisella (Pomacentridae)

Acoustic signals are well established as key components of mate selection in terrestrial species, but not in aquatic species. It has long been known that damselfish (Pomacentridae) use a combined visual and acoustic display in their courtship.. This study examined several male qualities including individual size, courtship vigor, territory size and complexity, as well as components of the acoustic call including dominant frequency, pulse characteristics and repetition rate. The objective was to determine which male traits were correlated with mating success. Observations made over ten reproductive cycles revealed that female mate choices were not random and that male mating success was correlated with courtship rate (a simultaneous visual and acoustic cue) and the number of neighboring females, but not with male morphological traits, territory quality, or acoustic call structure. These results suggest that females choose mates based on a condition-dependent trait (courtship rate) that advertises quality of paternal care, which supports good parent models of sexual selection, thereby demonstrating the importance of the combined acoustic/visual display for sexual selection in fishes     

论山毛榉科植物的系统发育

本文运用分支分类学方法,对山毛榉科植物进行了系统发育的分析。山毛榉科作为单元发生群包括柯属、锥属、粟属、三棱栎属、水青冈属和栎属。桦木科和南山毛榉属被选择作为外类群。对大量的性状进行评估之后,选择了25对性状作为建立数据矩阵的基本资料。性状极化以外类群比较为主,同时也采用了化石证据和通行的形态演化的基本原则。数据矩阵由7个分类群、2个外类群和25个性状组成。采用最大同步法、演化极端结合法和综合分析法对该数据矩阵进行了分析。在得到的3个树状分支图中按照最简约的原则,选出演化长度最短的谱系分支图作为本文讨论山毛榉科属间的系统演化关系的基础。关于山毛榉科植物的系统发育,作者的观点如下：(A)现存的山毛榉科的6个属形成了4条平行进化的分支路线,它们分别被处理作4个亚科,即：栗亚科,三棱栎亚科,水青冈亚科和栎亚科;(B)平行进化是山毛榉科植物系统发育过程中的主要形式。生殖过程中的一些特征,如：果实第二年成熟,胚珠通常败育等,是影响山毛榉科植物属间基因交流的主要原因。在现存的山毛榉科植物中,柯属是最原始的类群。三棱栎属和锥属的起源也较早,而栗属、水青冈属和栎属是特化的类群。     

Deciduous and semi-deciduous oak forests (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus robur,Q. petraea</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Q. pyrenaica</Emphasis>) floristic composition in the Northwest Iberian Peninsula

Oak forests in the Northwest Iberian Peninsula represent climax communities with a high floristic diversity of vascular plants. This study presents data from 189 botanical samples randomly collected in stands of deciduous and semi-deciduous oak as Quercus robur (98), Q. petraea (50) and Q. pyrenaica (41). Within these stands, 187 species or subspecies were identified, in addition to 20 genera and 68 families, all of them present in forests of Quercus robur. A total of 126 species occur in more than five relevés. The largest number of species corresponds to Poaceae (22), Fabaceae (19) and Rosaceae (14). The biological spectrum is dominated by hemicryptophytes, with mainly Atlantic and Sub-Atlantic floristic elements. The distribution of the stands has been studied by using Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis, obtaining like pseudo-species, with shrubby and arborea form, the following ones: Fagus sylvatica, Castanea sativa, Sorbus aucuparia, Corylus avellana, Crataegus monogyna, Pyrus cordata, Erica arborea, Frangula alnus and Cytisus scoparius.     

Cotyledon storage proteins as markers of the genetic diversity in Castanea sativa Miller

This study has been to analyse the useful nut globulin proteins as a marker of the genetic diversity in Castanea sativa. The evaluated populations were highly polymorphic for the globulins, being detected up to 35 polymorphic bands with a wide distribution among all the evaluated populations. Taken together for populations from all the chestnut regions, about 39.3% of total allelic variation was distributed among the populations. The estimates of genetic similarity between populations were clearly associated with the collecting site. This method of analysis of the nut storage proteins (globulins) could be a useful tool for the evaluation of genetic diversity in this and other species of the Fagaceae.     

Variation in pika (Ochotona collaris,O. princeps) vocalizations within and between populations

Understanding geographic call variation can resolve evolutionary and behavioural questions, yet the factors influencing divergent acoustic signals remain poorly understood in mammals. We explored call variation between collared pikas in Yukon and Alaska and American pikas in Alberta, and between individuals within a population of collared pikas. Classification trees were used to determine the extent of call divergence between populations and the elements of calls driving these differences. Pika populations had significant differences in call structure, and individual pikas were classified to their correct populations with up to 94% accuracy. To investigate possible mechanisms responsible for interspecific variability, we tested the acoustic adaptation hypothesis by using a playback experiment to explore whether American and collared pika calls transmit with less degradation across their own species' habitat than the habitat of their congener. We found no support for the acoustic adaptation hypothesis. Geographic call variation in these two species of pikas likely reflects genetic divergence, and may be a result of separate evolutionary histories. We calculated the potential for individual coding for both time and frequency measurements of calls. High frequency harmonics showed greater between‐ than within‐individual variation, and may act as sources of information regarding individual identity.     

Comparison of quantitative trait loci for adaptive traits between oak and chestnut based on an expressed sequence tag consensus map

A comparative genetic and QTL mapping was performed between Quercus robur L. and Castanea sativa Mill., two major forest tree species belonging to the Fagaceae family. Oak EST-derived markers (STSs) were used to align the 12 linkage groups of the two species. Fifty-one and 45 STSs were mapped in oak and chestnut, respectively. These STSs, added to SSR markers previously mapped in both species, provided a total number of 55 orthologous molecular markers for comparative mapping within the Fagaceae family. Homeologous genomic regions identified between oak and chestnut allowed us to compare QTL positions for three important adaptive traits. Colocation of the QTL controlling the timing of bud burst was significant between the two species. However, conservation of QTL for height growth was not supported by statistical tests. No QTL for carbon isotope discrimination was conserved between the two species. Putative candidate genes for bud burst can be identified on the basis of colocations between EST-derived markers and QTL.     

The first call note of the Anhui tree frog (Rhacophorus zhoukaiya) is acoustically suited for enabling individual recognition

The effective production of acoustic signals is critically important for intraspecific communication in vocal animals; however, it is also highly time-consuming, energetically demanding and likely to increase predation risks. Thus, we hypothesized that the biological significance of each component of complex acoustic signals would differ serving specific functions and that the first component of such signals would be most important for social signalling and exhibit unique acoustic characteristics because of the precedence effect. To test this hypothesis, we measured temporal and spectral acoustic parameters for each note in the advertisement calls of the Anhui tree frog (Rhacophorus zhoukaiya), a species in which males build mud burrows and call from within these nests. Multivariate analyses including hierarchical cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling were used, based on temporal and spectral acoustic parameters for each of 10 notes/call. These results show that the first call notes form one cluster while the other notes form a second cluster in multidimensional space when the parameters measured were normalized. Furthermore, the temporal and spectral sound attributes of the first call note provide sufficient information for discrimination between different individuals. Moreover, discriminant analysis showed that the fundamental frequency of the first note is sufficient to identify individuals when the data are not normalized. Taken together, these results indicate that the first call note is poised to play an important role in Anhui tree frog vocal communication insofar as the temporal and spectral features provide sufficient information for individual recognition.     

Phylogeographic patterns in Drosophila montana

The Drosophila virilis species group offers valuable opportunities for studying the roles of chromosomal re-arrangements and mating signals in speciation. The 13 species are divided into two subgroups, the montana and virilis 'phylads'. There is greater differentiation among species within the montana phylad in both karyotype and acoustic signals than exists among members of the virilis phylad. Drosophila montana is a divergent species which is included in the montana phylad. Here, we analyse the phylogeography of D. montana to provide a framework for understanding divergence of acoustic signals among populations. We analysed mitochondrial sequences corresponding to the cytochrome oxidase I and cytochrome oxidase II genes, as well as 16 microsatellite loci, from 108 lines of D. montana covering most of the species' range. The species shows a clear genetic differentiation between North American and Scandinavian populations. Microsatellite allele frequencies and mitochondrial DNA haplotypes gave significant FST values between populations from Canada, USA and Finland. A Bayesian analysis of population structure based on the microsatellite frequencies showed four genetically distinct groups, corresponding to these three populations plus a small sample from Japan. A network based on mitochondrial haplotypes showed two Finnish clades of very different shape and variability, and another clade with all sequences from North America and Japan. All D. montana populations showed evidence of demographic expansion but the patterns inferred by coalescent analysis differed between populations. The divergence times between Scandinavian and North American clades were estimated to range from 450,000 to 900,000 years with populations in Canada and the USA possibly representing descendants of different refugial populations. Long-term separation of D. montana populations could have provided the opportunity for differentiation observed in male signal traits, especially carrier frequency of the song, but relaxation of sexual selection during population expansion may have been necessary.