Contamination of mural paintings by indoor airborne fungal spores

Summary The processes of biodeterioration on mural paintings have often been discussed, whereas the causes of contamination have seldom been examined.Many microorganisms responsible for the biodeterioration of paintings are of airborne origin. It follows that an investigation on the aerial microbial concentration and air movements in painted indoors is very useful.This paper reviews the literature of mural painting biodeterioration and the aerobiological studies of painted indoors. Hypogean environments, for their particular microclimatic conditions, are not considered.The fungal species most frequently found in the biodeterioration of wall-paintings are reported, as well as comparisons of surface contamination and aerobiological investigation.This review shows the necessity of finding the best sampling methodologies for cultural heritage studies. The control of airborne contamination and proper sampling methods are highly important in determining treatment strategies for the conservation and prevention of microbial attack on painted surfaces.     

岩画和壁画类文物微生物病害研究进展

古代岩画和壁画是人类文明发展历史进程的重要记录,具有极高的历史价值、艺术价值及科学价值,但他们无时无刻不受到环境因素引起的物理、化学及生物的劣化作用。近年,有关微生物对古代岩/壁画的危害逐渐受到关注。阐述了世界一些著名的岩/壁画文物的微生物的研究进展,如法国拉斯科洞穴岩画(Lascaux Cave)、西班牙阿尔塔米拉洞穴岩画(Altamira Cave)、敦煌石窟壁画、嘉峪关魏晋墓壁画以及我国东北地区公元5世纪的墓葬壁画等。通过对以上所述岩画和壁画微生物群落的分析比较,发现主要的细菌群落是变形菌门和放线菌门,放线菌门以假诺卡氏菌为主。真菌群落主要以虫生真菌为主。进一步分析了岩画和壁画微生物病害的共性和区别,揭示了洞穴、墓室等特殊环境下的微生物群落特点,为防治古代岩/壁画微生物病害提供了以下借鉴。     

Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from first dynasty Egyptian tombs, using discriminant functions.

An analysis of First Dynasty crania from Abydos was undertaken using multiple discriminant functions. The results demonstrate greater affinity with Upper Nile Valley patterns, but also suggest change from earlier craniometric trends. Gene flow and movement of northern officials to the important southern city may explain the findings.     

Biocontrol activity of salt tolerant Streptomyces isolates against phytopathogens causing root rot of sugar beet

Biological control of fungi causing root rot on sugar beet by native Streptomyces isolates (C and S2) was evaluated in this study. The dry weight and colony forming unit (CFU) of S2 and C increased when 300 mM NaCl was added to medium. The in vitro antagonism assays showed that both isolates had inhibitory effect against Rhizoctonia solani AG-2, Fusarium solani and Phytophthora drechsleri. In dual culture, Streptomyces isolate C inhibited mycelial growth of R. solani, F. solani and P. drechsleri 45%, 53% and 26%, respectively. NaCl treatment of medium increased biocontrol activity of soluble and volatile compounds of isolate C and S2. After salt treatment, growth inhibition of R. solani, F. solani and P. drechsleri by isolate C increased up to 59%, 70% and 79%, respectively. To elucidate the mode of antagonism, protease, chitinase, beta glucanase, cellulase, lipase and α-amylase activity and siderophore and salicylic acid (SA) production were evaluated. Both isolates showed protease, chitinase and α-amylase activity. Also, biosynthesis of siderophore was detectable for both isolates. Production of siderophore and activity of protease and α-amylase increased after adding salt for both isolates. In contrast, chitinase activity decreased significantly. Production of SA, beta glucanase and lipase by isolate S2 and biosynthesis of cellulase by isolate C were observed in presence and absence of NaCl. Soil treatment with Streptomyces isolate C inhibited root rot of sugar beet caused by P. drechsleri, R. solani and F. solani. Results of this study showed that these two Streptomyces isolates had potential to be utilized as biocontrol agent against fungal diseases especially in saline soils.     

16S rDNA sequence analysis of bacterial isolates from biodeteriorated mural paintings in the Servilia tomb (Necropolis of carmona, Seville, Spain)

Bacteria were isolated from damaged mural paintings of the Servilia tomb (necropolis of Carmona, Seville, Spain). Selected strains, representative for different clusters of isolates with similar fatty acid profiles, were analysed by 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Bacillus is the dominant genus among the isolates: members of the rRNA species complexes of B. megaterium, B. pumilus and B. firmus were found as well as several other Bacillus species. One group of halotolerant isolates falls in the Bacillus sensu lato group, with closest relatedness to the genera Salibacillus and Virgibacillus. Other genera found are Artbrobacter, Micrococcus, Streptomyces, Sphingomonas, Paenibacillus, and a genus closely related to Paracraurococcus. Many isolates showed low 16S rDNA sequence similarities with the closest related database entries, a strong indication for the presence of several new species among the isolates.     

Variation in ancient Egyptian stature and body proportions

Stature and the pattern of body proportions were investigated in a series of six time-successive Egyptian populations in order to investigate the biological effects on human growth of the development and intensification of agriculture, and the formation of state-level social organization. Univariate analyses of variance were performed to assess differences between the sexes and among various time periods. Significant differences were found both in stature and in raw long bone length measurements between the early semipastoral population and the later intensive agricultural population. The size differences were greater in males than in females. This disparity is suggested to be due to greater male response to poor nutrition in the earlier populations, and with the increasing development of social hierarchy, males were being provisioned preferentially over females. Little change in body shape was found through time, suggesting that all body segments were varying in size in response to environmental and social conditions. The change found in body plan is suggested to be the result of the later groups having a more tropical (Nilotic) form than the preceding populations.     

The bacterial aetiology of rosy discoloration of ancient wall paintings

The inventory of microorganisms responsible for biological deterioration of ancient paintings has become an integral part of restoration activities. Here, the microbial agent of rosy discoloration on medieval frescoes in the Crypt of the Original Sin (Matera, Italy) was investigated by a combination of microscopic, molecular and spectroscopic approaches. The bacterial community from three rosy-discoloured painting sites was characterized by 16S rRNA gene-based techniques. The eubacterial population was prevalently composed of Actinobacteria, among which Rubrobacter radiotolerans-related bacteria accounted for 63-87% of the 16S rRNA gene pool per sampled site. Archaea, with prevalence of Haloarchaea-related species, were detected in one of the three sites where they accounted for < 0.1% of the total 16S rRNA gene pool. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the identity between R. radiotolerans carotenoids (bacterioruberins) and pigments responsible for colour alteration of frescoes. This investigation provides the first evidence of a causal relationship between heavy contamination by Rubrobacter-related bacterioruberin-producing bacteria and rosy discoloration of ancient wall paintings.     

墓室酥碱砖壁画及其环境的真菌多样性分析

【背景】酥碱是威胁古代墓室砖壁画保存的主要病害之一,水分和盐分共同作用下壁画产生酥碱病害,而其中真菌类群、来源及耐盐性鲜有报道。【目的】比较敦煌汉墓、晋墓和嘉峪关五号墓内砖壁画酥碱样品及其赋存环境空气中可培养真菌的群落组成、多样性及耐盐性,为砖壁画的防护提供理论依据。【方法】运用扫描电镜观察酥碱样品微观形貌,并结合能谱、X射线衍射进行成分分析;对样品培养、分离、纯化获得真菌纯菌株,运用形态和分子生物学技术鉴定种属;利用梯度含盐培养基研究菌株的耐盐性。【结果】墓室酥碱样品及环境空气中青霉属(Pencillium)、曲霉属(Aspergillus)和枝孢属(Cladosporium)丰度较高,为优势属;其他菌属包括镰孢菌属(Fusarium)和毛壳菌属(Chaetomium)为稀有属。三座墓室砖壁画酥碱中均存在烟曲霉(A.fumigatus)、花斑曲霉(A.versicolor)以及黄灰青霉(P.aurantiogriseum);酥碱样品与墓室内外空气中分离获得的真菌类群间有一定相似性。多数菌株可在含15%NaCl的培养基上生长,一株产黄青霉(P. chrysogenum)甚至可在30%盐浓度条件下生长。【结论】青霉属和曲霉属为墓室共有优势菌,多数菌株有较强的耐盐性。     

The botanical aspects of ancient Egyptian embalming and burial

The ancient Egyptian art of embalming, a highly developed process, involved many plants and plant products. Thirty-one genera of plants have been mentioned by various writers in the operations of embalming, cosmetic application, wrapping and coffin construction. The materials employed and methods of use have interested scholars of all periods. Herodotus gave the earliest account of the various aspects of embalming.     

Characterization of vascular mural cells during zebrafish development

Development and maturation of the nascent cardiovascular system requires the recruitment of mural cells (MCs) around the vascular tree in a process called vascular myogenesis. Understanding the origin and development of vascular MCs has been hampered by difficulties in observing these cells in vivo and performing defined genetic and experimental manipulations in available model organisms. Here, we investigate the origin of vascular MCs using molecular and genetic tools in zebrafish. We show that vascular MCs are present around the lateral dorsal aortae (LDA) and anterior mesenteric arteries (AMA) of developing animals, and that they also contribute to the outflow tract of the developing heart and ventral aorta (VA). Genetic data indicate that the vascular MCs of the LDA and AMA do not arise from blood or endothelial progenitors but from other derivatives of the lateral plate mesoderm. We further show that zebrafish vascular MCs share many of the morphological, molecular and functional characteristics of vascular smooth muscle cells and pericytes found in higher vertebrates. These data establish the zebrafish as a useful cellular and genetic model to study vascular myogenesis as well as tumor angiogenesis and other MC-associated diseases.     

敦煌壁画色变中微生物因素的研究：Ⅱ.微生物对模拟石窟壁画颜料 …

通过对微生物生长后的模拟壁画的分析测定,发现微生物对壁画颜料有很大影响：微生物形成的可溶性色素直接造成壁画色度的改变,在生长代谢过程中形成大量的草酸盐,并使颜粒晶体的晶形发生变化。此外,微生物的作用使铅丹的价态改变,在铅丹的色变中起着重要的作用。     

Production of transglutaminase by Streptomyces isolates in solid-state fermentation

Aims:  To screen Streptomyces isolates for transglutaminase (TGase) production in solid-state fermentation (SSF) on various substrates.
Methods and Results:  Streptomyces mobaraensis NRRL B-3729, Streptomyces paucisporogenes ATCC 12596 and Streptomyces platensis NRRL 2364 strains were screened for extracellular TGase production in SSF on different substrates. High-protein-content beans, peas and lentils proved to be the best substrates. Good TGase production was obtained on liver kidney beans and green mung beans in a 4- to 6-day SSF. Temperature optima of the enzymes varied between 45 to 50°C. Molecular weight determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE) indicated similar size (∼37 kDa) for all three enzymes. TGase was the dominating protein band on SDS PAGE for two Streptomyces strains in SSF extracts. Other enzymes were present in smaller quantities.
Conclusions:  Streptomyces mobaraensis NRRL B-3729, S. paucisporogenes ATCC 12596 and S. platensis NRRL 2364 strains were successfully propagated under SSF conditions on crushed/milled liver kidney bean and green mung bean to obtain good level of TGase.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  Owing to much reduced production cost and direct applicability, SSF TGase without downstream processing (cheap in situ enzyme, crude enzyme) may be an excellent candidate for some nonfood applications.     

Unidirectionality of floral colour changes

Many angiosperms have arranged their flowers in inflorescences forming a distinct signalling unit to flower visitors. In some species, the flowers of inflorescences undergo a temporal colour change corresponding exactly to a change in the reward status. Based on information obtained from the spectral reflection curves of pre-change and postchage colours of flower corollas and/or floral guides, it was possible to demonstrate that the colour phase associated with reward closely corresponds to the visual stimuli which trigger behavioural responses of inexperienced flower visitors, and that the colour phase associated with less reward corresponds to visual stimuli less attractive to naïve flower visitors. Reciprocal colour changes were not observed. It is to be assumed that the unidirectionality of floral colour changes is an adaptation of angiosperms aimed at the guidance of first-time flower visitors. Signalling reward to inexperienced flower visitors is an additional function of floral colour changes. The main function of floral colour changes, however, is to provide cues with which the flower visitors can learn to associate one colour phase with reward.     

Production of L-leucine aminopeptidase by selected Streptomyces isolates

Aims: To screen various Streptomyces cultures producing l ‐leucine aminopeptidase (LAP). Methods and Results: Twenty‐one Streptomyces strains were screened for LAP production. The best three producers were found to be Streptomyces mobaraensis NRRL B‐3729, Streptomyces gedanensis IFO 13427, and Streptomyces platensis NRRL 2364. pH optima of the three enzymes were in the range of 8·0–8·5 and the temperature optima varied between 50 and 65°C. LAP of S. mobaraensis was stable at 60°C and pH 8·5 for 60 min. Metal ion salts, CoCl₂.6H₂O and ZnSO₄.7H₂O in 0·7 mmol l^?1 concentration enhanced the relative enzyme activity in all three enzymes. Molecular mass of LAP of S. mobaraensis was found to be approx. 37 kDa. Conclusions: Streptomyces mobaraensis NRRL B‐3729, S. gedanensis IFO 13427, and S. platensis NRRL 2364 were found to be good producers of extracellular LAP. The approx. 37 kDa enzyme of S. mobaraensis is considerably thermostable. Significance and Impact of the Study: A good number of Streptomyces were screened and the ability of the aminopeptidases to release a particular N‐terminal amino acid along with its good thermal stability makes them interesting for controlling the degree of hydrolysis and flavour development for a wide range of substrate.     

Rapid identification of Streptomyces isolates by MALDI-TOF MS

The recent emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria over the last decade has led to a renewal in the discovery of new antimicrobial drugs. Streptomyces members are practically unlimited sources of new antibiotics. However, the identification of Streptomyces species is difficult and time-consuming. Therefore, there is a need for alternative methods for their rapid identification. In this study, an efficient protocol of identification using Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was developed and applied for the rapid identification of Streptomyces isolates from the El Kala lakes in northeastern Algeria. A collection of 48 Streptomyces isolates were used for this study. The optimized procedure allowed us to obtain specific and reproducible protein spectra for each Streptomyces isolate tested. The spectra generated were used to build a preliminary local database based on their initial 16S rRNA identification. The blind test used for the identification of 20 Streptomyces strains already available in our created database and 20 unknown Streptomyces isolates showed that all (100%) of the Streptomyces strains listed in the database were rapidly (<30 min) identified with high scores of up to 2.8. Here, for the first time we showed that MALDI-TOF MS could be used as a cost-effective tool for the rapid identification of Streptomyces isolates.     

Distribution of microorganisms on ancient wall paintings as related to associated faunal elements

Knowledge of the bioreceptivity of wall paintings to microbially induced decay processes has increased considerably in the last few years. Indoor wall paintings are widely recognised as a favourable environment for microbial biofilms in general and for microscopic fungi in particular. This environment also provides a suitable substrate for insects, spiders and other arthropodas. A combination of mycological and entomological studies of indoor wall paintings demonstrates an important ecological correlation between fungi and arthropods in the developmental processes of this complex microbial community. The co-existence of microscopic fungi and arthropods on the surface of wall paintings suggests an ecological interaction between them. Faunal impacts on the growth of biofilms due to grazing and propagule dispersal cannot be overlooked. Along with the above-mentioned perturbations, arthropods can directly damage the wall paintings by bioabrasion during grazing on the biofilm, as well as by the production of dwelling cavities. In this publication, we present the ecological connections between the major microscopic inhabitants of these important objects of cultural heritage. The additional role of arthropods as a remarkable source of organic substrate (e.g., chitin, spidersilk and faecal pellets) available for many micromycetes is discussed.