Climatic reconstruction at the Miocene Shanwang basin, China, using leaf margin analysis, CLAMP, coexistence approach, and overlapping distribution analysis

The reconstruction of the climate in the Miocene Shanwang basin is an important link in understanding past climate and environmental changes in East Asia. A recent study showed that the mean annual temperature (MAT) estimates derived from leaf margin analysis (LMA) and the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP) conflicted with and were remarkably lower than those estimated by the coexistence approach (CA). Overlapping distribution analysis (ODA), a new method introduced here, is used to reconstruct the Shanwang Miocene climate based explicitly on local plant distribution data and associated meteorological stations. The Shanwang flora (17-15.2 Ma) suggests a MAT of 10.9-14.5°C and a mean annual precipitation (MAP) of 1107.3-1880.0 mm. This result is closer to the values derived from CLAMP and LMA than that obtained by CA. This report is the first comprehensive intercomparison of foliar physiognomic and nearest living relative climate proxies in a Chinese context and provides important cross validation of results.     

Is southern Africa different? An investigation of the relationship between leaf physiognomy and climate in southern African mesic vegetation

Leaves from 24 South African vegetation sites, including 3 Fynbos sites, exhibiting high levels of endemism, were assessed by both LMA (Leaf Margin Analysis) and CLAMP (Climate Leaf Multivariate Program) to determine the effect of endemism on these palaeoclimate proxies. We examined whether existing calibrations using either locally recorded climate data or globally gridded climate data are appropriate for South Africa, or whether new calibrations specific to the region provide more accurate results. The results suggest that calibrations using gridded data yield slightly cooler estimates using LMA when the percentage of entire margined species is over 25. Overall, however, the differences are small and both gridded and local climate station calibration data can be used with equal accuracy. Xeric sites differ from mesic sites regarding the relationship between leaf margin proportion (LMP) and MAT, but with the exception of Fynbos sites, the differences are small when the percentage of entire margined species is < 65. Fynbos sites plot up to 8 °C cooler for a given leaf margin percentage (LMP) than do other sites. LMA was also sensitive to the number of taxa scored and in general should not be attempted on less than 15 leaf morphotypes per site. For CLAMP, the African non-Fynbos sites plotted within the parameters characterized by the existing PHYSG3BRC data set, indicating that they had a leaf physiognomic response to climate consistent with that of the rest of the world. However, the African non-Fynbos sites did fill a previously unoccupied void within that space, indicating the existence of a regional variance from the global pattern. This suggests that endemism per se does not prevent CLAMP from yielding reliable climate predictions. The inclusion of African non-Fynbos sites into the calibration improved the ability of CLAMP to predict Fynbos site climate, although this remained poor for non-coastal xeromorphic Fynbos vegetation. The addition of the African non-Fynbos vegetation did not degrade significantly the PHYSG3BRC calibration, particularly regarding key climatic variables such as enthalpy. Enthalpy appears to be a particularly robust variable with which to test climate model performance against CLAMP palaeoclimate predictions.     

The Shanwang fossil biota in eastern China: a Miocene Konservat-Lagerstätte in lacustrine deposits

The Miocene Shanwang biota in eastern China is one of the taxonomically most diversified and extraordinarily well-preserved lacustrine fossil deposits in the world. This study provides the historical and geological background, documents the taxonomic diversity, and examines the preservational style of this unique Konservar-Lagerstätte. A 30 m thick diatomaceous shale (the lower part of the Shanwang Formation), deposited in a small and volcanically related lake basin under a warm temperate climate, hosts more than 500 fossil species, including fungi, diatoms, higher plants, insects, ostracodes, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The excellent preservation of the fossils has yielded (1) non-mineralized organic tissues of animals and plants; (2) detailed morphology of delicate organs such as flowers, feathers, and hairs; (3) original coloration of plants and insects; and (4) completely articulated animal bodies with in situ teeth, skin, and even stomach contents. The highly diversified fossil biota shows a complex interrelationship of co-occurring organisms that once lived in a eutrophic water body with a dense forest nearby. The preservation of soft tissues among the Shanwang fossils provides feasible material for further molecular-level investigation of these Miocene organisms. □ Miocene, KONSERVAT-LAGERSTÄTTEN, lacustrine, taxonomic diversity, preservational style, Shanwang, China.     

定量研究晚白垩世以来陆地生态系统演化格局和过程的新进展

陆地植物的起源和演化与全球气候环境存在着密不可分的关系,而且地质历史时期全球气候环境和植被均呈动态变化,被子植物在白垩纪开始出现,并发生强烈分化,成为植物界的主宰,对这全球陆地生态系统的演化格局和过程产生重要影响,大量保存在地层中具有叶相特征的被子植物叶化石对认识这一过程提供了极为重要的生物学信息,简述了利用被子植物的叶相对古气候,古地理等进行定量分析的研究历史,“气候与叶片多变量分析程序”（Climate-Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program CLAMP）颇具特色,运用CLAMP在定量解释古气候等方面可以得到准确而精确的结果,这对定量重建晚白垩世以来全球陆地气候环境变化的格局与过程具有十分重要的意义,并对今后的深入研究作了展望。     

山东山旺中新世植物群研究进展

 山旺盆地位于东经118º,北纬36º,是一个中新世中期内陆湖泊沉积盆地。地层内保存了丰富的植物及动物化石。自40年代至今,已对山旺中新世植物群中的大植物化石(87属125种),植物孢粉(41属71种),硅藻(16属45种)及真菌(9属15种)进行了详细的研究。考虑到山旺中新世植物群处于全球气候变化的转折期,对其进行埋藏学,古环境重建等深入细致的研究,对阐明全球中新世气候变化的机制具有重要意义。     

A climatic and taxonomic comparison between leaf litter and standing vegetation from a Florida swamp woodland

One method to determine past climate has been the use of leaf morphological characteristics of fossil leaves quantified using modern climate and canopy leaf characteristics. Fossil assemblages are composed of abscised leaves, and climate may be more accurately determined by using leaves from leaf litter instead of the canopy. To better understand whether taphonomic processes make a difference in this relationship, a north-central Florida woodland was sampled to determine the morphologically based climate estimates from these leaves. Leaves from woody, dicotyledonous plants were collected and identified, then compared using presence/absence data and analyzed using several linear regression equations and the CLAMP data set. Although the majority of standing vegetation was reflected in leaf litter, some inconsistencies were observed, which may reflect plant community structure or sampling technique. Mean annual temperature (MAT) and growing season precipitation (GSP) were estimated from leaf litter morphological characters and living leaves. Overall, values for MAT estimated from litter and living leaves were cooler than actual MATs, although several accurate and high estimates were obtained depending on the predictive method used. Estimated GSP values were higher than actual GSPs. Statistically, no difference was observed between MAT and GSP estimates derived from leaf litter vs. estimates derived from living leaves, with one exception.     

NEW FOSSIL MICROMAMMALS FROM SHANWANG, SHANDONG

<正> In comparison with the recovery of macromammals from Shanwang, Shandong, the finds of micromammals from the locality are still rather small. Up to now, only three forms, Shanwangia unexpectula Young, 1977, Meinia asiatica Qiu, 1981 and Diatomys shantungensis Li, 1977 have been reported. Two taxa of small mammals described in this paper can be added to the list of the middle Miocene Shanwang fauna. The specimens in question were collected from the diatomaceous quarry in 1983.     

Fossil leaves from Lukeino,a 6-million-year-old Formation in the Baringo Basin,Kenya

Thirty-eight dicotyledonous leaf morphotypes and some monocot leaf fragments are described from the Kapcharar, Kabogongoi, Koibo Chepkweny and Inoswa Kamelon localities in the upper third of the Lukeino Formation, Tugen Hills, Baringo Basin (Kenya). The leaves are preserved in fine-grained paper shales and range in length from 9 to 160 mm. Some of the leaves show affinities with extant species in the Burseraceae, Ebenaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Loganiaceae, Malvaceae and Sapotaceae families that are common in the local flora today. There are compound and simple leaves, mostly entire-margined and with only 10% non-entire margins. A CLAMP analysis of the Kapcharar leaves indicates that the local climate was seasonal, summer wet with 1723 mm mean annual rainfall and with a mean annual temperature of 19.8 °C. The vegetation was a deciduous forest or woodland with open areas nearby. A monocot leaf and two fragments of fern pinnae are also described; they imply locally wetter environments. The flora described here is directly associated with the early hominid Orrorin tugenensis.     

Correlations of climate and plant ecology to leaf size and shape: potential proxies for the fossil record

The sizes and shapes (physiognomy) of fossil leaves are widely applied as proxies for paleoclimatic and paleoecological variables. However, significant improvements to leaf-margin analysis, used for nearly a century to reconstruct mean annual temperature (MAT), have been elusive; also, relationships between physiognomy and many leaf ecological variables have not been quantified. Using the recently developed technique of digital leaf physiognomy, correlations of leaf physiognomy to MAT, leaf mass per area, and nitrogen content are quantified for a set of test sites from North and Central America. Many physiognomic variables correlate significantly with MAT, indicating a coordinated, convergent evolutionary response of fewer teeth, smaller tooth area, and lower degree of blade dissection in warmer environments. In addition, tooth area correlates negatively with leaf mass per area and positively with nitrogen content. Multiple linear regressions based on a subset of variables produce more accurate MAT estimates than leaf-margin analysis (standard errors of ±2 vs. ±3°C); improvements are greatest at sites with shallow water tables that are analogous to many fossil sites. The multivariate regressions remain robust even when based on one leaf per species, and the model most applicable to fossils shows no more signal degradation from leaf fragmentation than leaf-margin analysis.     

New developments in CLAMP: Calibration using global gridded meteorological data

Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP) is a versatile technique for obtaining quantitative estimates for multiple terrestrial palaeoclimate variables from woody dicot leaf assemblages. To date it has been most widely applied to the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary of the mid- to high latitudes because of concerns over the relative dearth of calibration sites in modern low-latitude warm climates, and the loss of information associated with the lack of marginal teeth on leaves in paratropical to tropical vegetation. This limits CLAMP's ability to quantify reliably climates at low latitudes in greenhouse worlds of the past.One of the reasons for the lack of CLAMP calibration samples from warm environments is the paucity of climate stations close to potential calibration vegetation sites at low latitudes. Agriculture and urban development have destroyed most lowland sites and natural vegetation is now largely confined to mountainous areas where climate stations are few and climatic spatial variation is high due to topographic complexity. To attempt to overcome this we have utilised a 0.5° × 0.5° grid of global interpolated climate data based on the data set of New et al. (1999) supplemented by the ERA40 re-analysis data for atmospheric temperature at upper levels. For each location, the 3-D climatology of temperature from the ECMWF re-analysis project was used to calculate the mean lower tropospheric lapse rate for each month of the year. The gridded data were then corrected to the altitude of the plant site using the monthly lapse rates. Corrections for humidity were also made. From this the commonly returned CLAMP climate variables were calculated. A bilinear interpolation scheme was then used to calculate the climate parameters at the exact lat/long of the site.When CLAMP analyses using the PHYSG3BR physiognomic data calibrated with the climate station based MET3BR were compared to analyses using the gridded data at the same locations (GRIDMET3BR), the results were indistinguishable in that they fell within the range of statistical uncertainty determined for each analysis. This opens the way to including natural vegetation anywhere in the world irrespective of the proximity of a meteorological station.     

Environmental signals from leaves--a physiognomic analysis of European vegetation

Leaf physiognomic traits vary predictably along climatic and environmental gradients. The relationships between leaf physiognomy and climate have been investigated on different continents, but so far an investigation based on European vegetation has been missing. A grid data set (0.5 degrees x 0.5 degrees latitude/longitude) has been compiled in order to determine spatial patterns of leaf physiognomy across Europe. Based on distribution maps of native European hardwoods, synthetic chorologic flora lists were compiled for all grid cells. Every synthetic chorologic flora was characterised by 25 leaf physiognomic traits and correlated with 16 climatic parameters. Clear spatial patterns of leaf physiognomy have been observed, which are statistically significant related to certain, temperature-related climate parameters. Transfer functions for several climatic parameters have been established, based on the observed relationships. The study provides evidence that synthetically generated floras represent a powerful tool for analysing spatial patterns of leaf physiognomy and their relationships to climate. The transfer functions from the European data set indicate slightly different relationships of leaf physiognomy and environment compared with results obtained from other continents.     

Succession of the Floras in Xizang during Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene and Neogene

This paper mainly deals with the Upper Cretaecous-Paleogene and the Neogene floras of Xizang. In 1974–1976. the Scientific Expedition Party of Academia Sinica discovered some fossilbearing beds from the Rikaze Group of Angreg district, the Jiuwu Formation of Douga district and the Menchi Formation of the Gandis Mountains. From these beds, leaf impressions of Eucalyptus angusta, E. geinitzi, E. oblongifolia, Ficus daphnoycnoides, F. stepheuseni, F. myrtifolia, Cassia fayattensis, C. marshalensis, Celastrus minor, Quereus orbicularis, Rhamnus menshigensis, Juglandites sinutus, Phrynium tibeticum Cyperacites of. haydenii and Typha sp. were obtained. Of which the genus Eucalyptus appears to be predominant. The geological age of this flora is assigned to Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene. It indicates that during this time the flora is mainly composed of evergreen broad-leaved trees thriving under a hot and wet climate. Fossils obtained from the Ye-Ma-Gou Formation of Gandis Mountains mainly consist of Populus balsamoides, P. latior, P. glandulifera, Salix sp. and Leguminosites sp. The age of this flora is assigned to Miocene, the fossils indicate that by that time deciduous broad-leaved trees were flourishing in that area. The Miocene of the Wulong Formation consists of Quercus semicarpifotia, Q. pannosa, Q. senscens, Q. spathulata, and some species of Thuja, Sabiua, Spiraca, Carpinus, Betula and Rhododendron the flora is mainly composed of evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved trees and along with some conifers, and was thriving under a cooler and arid climate. This flora is quite different from the previous one which caused by the uplift of the Himalayas. The composition of this flora is very similar to the Neogene flora of Yunnan which indicates that at that time Xizang and Yunnan probable belong to the same floristic province. The discovery of Eucalyptus in Xizang shows that the climate of Xizang during Upper Cretaeeous-Paleogene was much warmer than that of Tibet at present. It also shows that this genus which now flourishes in Australia may originate from the northern hemisphere.     

Refining CLAMP — Investigations towards improving the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program

CLAMP (Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program) has been used for the past 17 years to estimate palaeoclimatic conditions. The reliability and applicability of this method, based on leaf physiognomic characters of fossil woody dicots, has been widely discussed over the same period. The present study focuses on some technical aspects of CLAMP, mainly on its robustness in the context of the theoretical unimodal requirements of Canonical Correspondence Analysis, and introduces “correction coefficients” for these aspects of the statistical approach as a new way of interpreting and improving on CLAMP estimates. This tool was tested on datasets derived from 17 European fossil floras ranging in age from the Late Oligocene to the Pliocene. Additionally, an objective statistical method for the selection of the best-suited modern vegetation dataset from 144 site (Physg3br) or 173 (Physg3ar) extant biotopes is proposed.     

A NEW SPECIES OF ALLIGATOR FROM SHANWANG, SHANDONG

<正> A crocodilian specimen is described and identified, as a new species of Alligalor in present paper. The material was collected from the Middle Member of the Shanwang Formation, Linqu County, Shandong Province by the members of the Linqu Paleontological Museum in 1984. Nearly 40 taxa of fossil vertebrates, including fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, have been reproted from this Miocene locality since 1930's (Yian et al. 1983, Qiu et al. 1986). Within the vertebrate fauna the fossil mammals and fishes are very rich, but the other are relatively rare. This is the first record of a crocodilan from the diatomaceous quarry of Shanwang.     

Leaf Shape Responds to Temperature but Not CO2 in Acer rubrum

The degree of leaf dissection and the presence of leaf teeth, along with tooth size and abundance, inversely correlate with mean annual temperature (MAT) across many plant communities. These relationships form the core of several methods for reconstructing MAT from fossils, yet the direct selection of temperature on tooth morphology has not been demonstrated experimentally. It is also not known if atmospheric CO₂ concentration affects leaf shape, limiting confidence in ancient climate reconstructions because CO₂ has varied widely on geologic timescales. Here I report the results of growing Acer rubrum (red maple) in growth cabinets at contrasting temperature and CO₂ conditions. The CO₂ treatment imparted no significant differences in leaf size and shape, while plants grown at cooler temperatures tended to have more teeth and more highly dissected leaves. These results provide direct evidence for the selection of temperature on leaf shape in one species, and support a key link in many leaf-climate methods. More broadly, these results increase confidence for using leaf shape in fossils to reconstruct paleoclimate.     

Miocene Diatom Assemblage of Shanwang,Shandong Sheng

Analysis of the diatomaceous earth collected from the Miocene type section in the Shanwang Basin of Shandong shows that the diatom assemblage there contains 16 genera, 95 species and varieties (of which 3 being new species), This fairly typical Miocene diatom assemblage may be correlated with the Miocene assemblage in Yakima district and Otis basin of Oregon, U.S.A. and those in W. Siberia, USSR. It is proved from the characteristics of the present diatom assemblage that the palaeoeeologieal environment during the diatom deposition was typically fresh lacus- trine facies, and the original lake surface was fairly extensive and the lake water was comparatively stable, but not very deep. The diatom assemblage contains species living now in more northern water bodies. This may be further proved by the associated grown cysts of Chrysophyta. The thin-bedded papery diatomaceous earth may be contributed partly to the fall of volcanic ashes, but most probably it is closely related to the seasonal palaeoclimatic changes as reflected in the growth repreduction stages of the diatoms.     

Effects of temperature on interactions of physiological and behavioural capacities of larval California grunion: Adaptations to the planktonic environment

The relationship between temperature-specific (11.3–27.1°C) rates of yolk utilization and temperature preference of California grunion, Leuresthes tenuis (Ayres), have been compared. Yolk-sac larvae experienced difficulty metabolizing protein at and above 25°C, and below 15°C they encountered problems with fat metabolism. These temperatures limited the range for normal embryonic development. The oil globule persisted longer than the yolk and may provide buoyancy to the anterior end as well as energy.

Thermoregulatory precision increased with number of days post-hatching. Yolk-sac larvae preferred ≈ 25°C; this temperature minimized duration of the yolk-sac stage but was outside the range for maximum growth efficiency (18–23°C). Following yolk resorption, non-feeding larvae preferred 18°C, which conserved energy but still maximized growth efficiency. Until at least 69 days post-hatching, larvae past the yolk-sac stage selected temperatures that maximized growth efficiency. Physiological and behavioural results indicate that larvae selected cooler temperatures when not feeding. This has been discussed and related to an apparent general adaptive behaviour to maximize bioenergetic efficiency.     

New fossil leaves and fruits of Lauraceae from the Middle Miocene of Fujian,southeastern China differentiated using a cluster analysis

The fossil record of Lauraceae can be traced back to the Early Cretaceous of eastern Asia based on fossil flowers. Here, we refer a number of new occurrences of leaf and fruit fossils of Lauraceae from the Middle Miocene of Zhangpu, Fujian, China, to seven species. These data provide evidence supporting the fact that a diverse subtropical, or tropical, Lauraceae-dominated evergreen forest surrounded this region 15 million years ago (Mya). The Lauraceae fossils presented in this paper provide evidence for the evolution of this group as well as new materials that enable the study of the Fujian Province Neogene flora. The fossils described in this paper fill in the gaps in studies about Lauraceae pollen in the Middle Miocene from Fotan, Fujian, China. In addition, these fossils also enrich the Middle Miocene fossil records of Lauraceae in eastern Asia, especially improving the study of the macrostructures and reproductive organs of fossil Lauraceae from southern China. The similarity between fossil and modern fruits shows that during the Middle Miocene the fruit morphological of Lauraceae have changed very little. We also identify families where the fossils we report belong to their closest relatives and can be used to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of Fujian in the Middle Miocene.     

Core temperature measurement by microwave radiometry

A ‘double-container model’ was used for core temperature (T_c) measurement by microwave emission radiometry (MR) of warm fluid inside a tube, placed in a container with a cooler fluid. The intensity of microwaves emitted from the warmer fluid inside the tube were measured using a MR metering device, consisting of an antenna linked to a low-noise radio frequency amplifier (bandwidth 500 MHz, centered at 4.0 GHz). Based on the MR measurements, a T_c prediction model was developed for measuring the temperature of fluid inside a tube, achieving a sensitivity of ±0.5 °C at environmental temperature of 33–37 °C.