Application of preferential crystallization to resolve racemic compounds in a hybrid process

The application of preferential crystallization is at present limited to conglomerate forming systems, which cover only a minor part of chiral substances. In this paper, a hybrid process is proposed that extends the applicability of the preferential crystallization principle to the more common racemic compound forming systems. It comprises a preliminary (e.g., chromatographic) enantiomeric enrichment step and preferential crystallization to finally produce the desired pure enantiomer(s). The applicability of preferential crystallization to racemic compounds is demonstrated on the example of mandelic acid as a model system. Direct monitoring of the separation progress is performed using combined online polarimetry and online density measurements. A cyclic crystallization process, which provides alternating the pure mandelic acid enantiomer and the racemic compound, is feasible and allows the resolution of rac-mandelic acid as part of the proposed hybrid approach.     

Optical resolution by preferential crystallization of (RS)-2-amino-3-chloropropanoic acid hydrochloride

The racemic structures of (RS)-2-amino-3-chloropropanoic acid [(RS)-ACP] and (RS)-2-amino-3-chloropropanoic acid hydrochloride [(RS-ACP·HCl] were examined to obtain (R)- and (S)-ACP via optical resolution by preferential crystallization. The melting point, infrared spectrum, solubility, and ternary solubility diagram suggested that (RS)-ACP·HCl exists as a conglomerate and that (RS)-ACP forms a racemic compound. Optical resolution by preferential crystallization of (RS)-ACP·HCl was successfully achieved to yield (R)- and (S)-ACP·HCl. Optically pure (R)- and (S)-ACP were obtained from the purified (R)-and (S)-ACP·HCl, respectively. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Enantiomeric resolution of p-toluenesulfonate of valine benzyl ester by preferential crystallizaion

Preferential crystallization of amino acid derivatives by seeding a pure enantiomer into racemic amino acid solutions has been studied for many years. However, few examples of valine derivatives have been reported so far. Although there have been some reports using valine hydrogen chloride with preferential crystallization, it is difficult to obtain optical isomers for valine derivatives using preferential crystallization. In this study, repeated preferential crystallization of p-toluenesulfonate valine benzyl ester with a 20% e.e. in 2-propanol gave a 94% e.e. on sonication. Sonication accelerated crystallization rate, but there was not a big difference in e.e. between with and without sonication. However, this research demonstrates the first preferential crystallization of p-toluenesulfonate of valine benzyl esters with an acceleration of crystallization using sonication.     

Three different types of chirality-driven crystallization within the series of uniformly substituted phenyl glycerol ethers

Seven chiral arylglycerol ethers 2-R-C(6)H(4)-O-CH(2)CH(OH)CH(2)OH (R = H, Me, Et, Allyl, n-Pr, i-Pr, tert-Bu) were synthesized in racemic and scalemic form. The IR spectra, melting points, and enthalpies of fusion for racemic and scalemic samples of every species were measured, the entropies of enantiomers mixing in the liquid state and Gibbs free energies of a racemic compound formation were derived and binary phase diagrams were reconstructed for the whole family. Solid racemic compounds stabilities were ranked for the four substances. Spontaneous resolution was established for the registered chiral drug mephenesin and its ethyl analogue. Metastable anomalous conglomerate, forming crystals having three independent R* and one independent S* molecules in the unit cell, is formed during solution crystallization of tert-butyl derivative; metastable phase transforms slowly into traditional racemic conglomerate.     

Anion Effect on the Binary and Ternary Phase Diagrams of Chiral Medetomidine Salts and Conglomerate Crystal Formation

The binary phase diagrams of hydrogen halides salts of medetomidine (Med.HX, X:Br,I) and hydrogen oxalate salt of medetomidine (Med.Ox) were determined based on thermogravimetric/differential thermal analysis (TGA/DTA) and their crystal structure behavior was confirmed by comparison of the X‐ray diffractometry and FT‐IR spectroscopy of the racemate and pure enantiomer. All hydrogen halide salts presented racemic compound behavior. Heat of fusion of halides salt of (rac)‐medetomidine decreased with ionic radius increase. Eutectic points for Med.HCl (previously reported), Med.HBr, and Med.HI rest were unchanged approximately. The solubility of different enantiomeric mixtures of Med.HBr and Med.HI were measured at 10, 20, and 30°C in 2‐propanol showing a solubility increase with ionic radius. A binary phase diagram of Med.Ox shows a racemic conglomerate behavior. The solubility of enantiomeric mixtures of Med.Ox were measured at 10, 20, 30, and 40°C. The ternary phase diagram of Med.Ox in ethanol conforms to a conglomerate crystal forming system, favoring its enantiomeric purification by preferential crystallization. Chirality 26:183–188, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Enzyme‐assisted physicochemical enantioseparation processes—Part III: Overcoming yield limitations by dynamic kinetic resolution of asparagine via preferential crystallization and enzymatic racemization

The application of enantioseparation methods alone can only yield up to 50% of the desired chiral product. Thus enantioseparation becomes more attractive when accompanied by the racemization of the counter‐enantiomer. Here we present first results of dynamic kinetic resolution of L ‐asparagine (L ‐Asn) via preferential crystallization and enzymatic racemization from a racemic, supersaturated solution on a 20 mL scale. An enzyme lyophilisate (WT amino acid racemase from P. putida KT2440 (E.C. 5.1.1.10), overexpressed in E. coli BL21(DE3)) was used for in situ racemization (enzyme concentrations varying from 0 to 1 mg/mL). When preferential crystallization was applied without any enzyme, a total of 31 mg of L ‐Asn monohydrate could be crystallized, before crystal formation of d ‐Asn started. Crystallization experiments accompanied by enzymatic racemization led to a significant increase of crystallized L ‐Asn (198 mg L ‐Asn monohydrate; >92%ee) giving the first experimental proof for this new process concept of dynamic kinetic resolution via preferential crystallization and enzymatic racemization. Measurements of the racemase activity before and after the crystallization process showed no significant differences, which would allow for enzyme recovery and recycling. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2009; 104: 1235–1239. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Asymmetric transformation of a racemic α-(phthalimidooxy)arylacetic ester by a combination of preferential crystallization and simultaneous racemization

An asymmetric transformation of racemic t-butyl 2-(3,4-O-carbonyldioxy-phenyl)-2-(phthalimidooxy)acetate [(RS)- 2b ] into one of its optically active forms was carried out by a combination of preferential crystallization of a desired enantiomer and the simultaneous racemization of the antipode. (R)- 2b was easily racemized in diethylketone in the presence of a small amount of 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU). Under the conditions for racemization, the asymmetric transformation was achieved successfully to give (S)- 2b with 84% optical purity in 80% yield. A potent antipseudomonal cephalosporin M-14659 ( 1 ) was prepared from the pure (S)- 2b which was obtained by the recrystallization of the crude (S)- 2b . © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Racemic compound against racemic conglomerate formation: the crystal properties of allylbenzylmethylphenylphosphonium iodide as compared with the nitrogen analogue

Although racemic allylbenzylmethylphenylammonium iodide 1b displays spontaneous resolution crystallizing in a homochiral mode as a conglomerate, its phosphonium analogue rac-2b crystallizes in a heterochiral lattice forming racemic compound in the solid state. The more pronounced conformation freedom for 2b molecules manifests itself by multiple molecules crystallization (Z' = 3) of (S)-2b with the three independent molecules having different conformation.     

A hybrid process for chiral separation of compound‐forming systems

The resolution of chiral compound‐forming systems using hybrid processes was discussed recently. The concept is of large relevance as these systems form the majority of chiral substances. In this study, a novel hybrid process is presented, which combines pertraction and subsequent preferential crystallization and is applicable for the resolution of such systems. A supported liquid membrane applied in a pertraction process provides enantiomeric enrichment. This membrane contains a solution of a chiral compound acting as a selective carrier for one of the enantiomers. Screening of a large number of liquid membranes and potential carriers using the conductor‐like screening model for realistic solvation method led to the identification of several promising carriers, which were tested experimentally in several pertraction runs aiming to yield enriched (+)‐(S)‐mandelic acid (MA) solutions from racemic feed solutions. The most promising system consisted of tetrahydronaphthalene as liquid membrane and hydroquinine‐4‐methyl‐2‐quinolylether (HMQ) as chiral carrier achieving enantiomeric excesses of 15% in average. The successful production of (+)‐(S)‐MA with a purity above 96% from enriched solutions by subsequent preferential crystallization proved the applicability of the hybrid process. Chirality, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Study of the characterization and crystallization of 4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone

A systematic study of the characterization for racemic species of 4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone was undertaken. The melting point phase diagram of (R)- and (S)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone was determined by differential scanning calorimetry. The ternary phase diagram of (R)- and (S)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone with isopropanol was constructed at 15, 20, 25, and 35 degrees C. The crystalline nature of 4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone racemate was also characterized by means of comparison of solid-state FTIR spectra and powder X-ray diffraction patterns of the racemic mixture with those of one of the enantiomers. It is shown that (+/-)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone is a racemic conglomerate. The enthalpies of fusion of (R)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone and (+/-)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone and entropy of mixing of (R)- and (S)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone were calculated using the thermodynamic data. The solubility and supersolubility diagrams of (R)- and (S)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone in isopropanol were determined over a temperature range of 4-35 degrees C. The optical resolution of (+/-)-4-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone was successfully achieved by preferential crystallization.     

Propagation of Biochirality: Crossovers and Nonclassical Crystallization Kinetics of Aspartic Acid in Water

All experimental procedures discussed could be treated as a screening tool for probing the existence of molecular association among the chiral molecules and the solvent system. The molecular association phases of a racemic conglomerate solution (CS) and a racemic compound solution (RCS), and the templating effect of aspartic acid solid surface were observed to minimize the chance of redissolving racemic conglomerate and racemic compound aspartic acid in water and reforming an RCS in crossovers experiments. Only 1 %wt% of l‐aspartic acid was adequate enough to induce a transformation from a racemic compound aspartic acid to a racemic conglomerate aspartic acid. This would make the propagation of biochirality more feasible and sound. However, tetrapeptide, (l‐aspartic acid)₄, failed to induce enantioseparation as templates purely by crystallization. Nonclassical crystallization theory was needed to take into account the existence of a CS. Fundamental parameters of the crystallization kinetics such as the induction time, interfacial energy, Gibbs energetic barrier, nucleation rate, and critical size of stable nuclei of: (i) racemic compound aspartic acid, (ii) racemic compound aspartic acid seeded with 1 %wt% l‐aspartic acid, (iii) racemic conglomerate aspartic acid, and (iv) l‐aspartic acid were evaluated and compared with different initial supersaturation ratios. Morphological studies of crystals grown from the crystallization kinetics were also carried out.Chirality 25:768–779, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Optical resolution of 1-(1-naphthyl)ethylamine by its dicarboxylic acid derivatives: Structural features of the oxalic acid derivative diastereomeric salt pair

Optical resolution methods were established for racemic 1-(1-naphthyl) ethylamine. The resolving agents were synthesized by N-derivatizing (R)-1-(1-naphthyl) ethylamine with dicarboxylic acids. Oxalic, malonic, and succinic acid derivatives were found to be suitable resolving agents. These resolutions are parallel to a series of optical resolutions of 1-phenylethylamine which had been previously performed by our research group using similar derivative resolving agents (Balint et al., Tetrahedron: Asymmetry 2001;12:1511-1518.) The comparison of the results of the enantiomer separations is performed. The diastereomeric salts formed with (R)-N-[1-(1-naphthyl)ethyl]oxalamic acid were investigated by single crystal X-ray diffraction. The crystal structures were compared with the previously published structures of the diastereomers of the phenyl-substituted analogue, namely (R)- and (S)-1-phenylethylammonium (R)-N-(1-phenylethyl)oxalamates (Balint et al., Tetrahedron: Asymmetry 2001;12:1511-1518).     

Kinetics of chiral resolution in stirred crystallization of D/L‐glutamic acid

Stirred crystallization of racemic (D/L)‐glutamic acid (Glu) in the presence of small amounts of L‐ or D‐lysine (Lys) was studied for the effect of transient chiral resolution by monitoring the time evolution of optical rotation and the concentration of the solution. The presence of a small amount of L‐ or D‐Lys retards the crystallization rate of the corresponding enantiomer of Glu in a chirally selective manner, giving rise to transient optical resolution of racemic Glu during crystallization. The optical rotation of the Glu solution was found to increase from zero to a value corresponding to an enantiomeric excess (ee) of 22–35% and subsequently decreases to zero over a period of many hours. During this process, the ee of the crystallized Gu is nearly 100% during the first 35 min and then it decreases slowly to zero. Our results indicate that the time at which the ee of the solution reaches its maximum and the maximum value of the ee show a nonlinear dependence on the initial mole fraction of the chiral impurity. The effect of the impurity is highly chirally selective, indicating “molecular recognition.” Chirality 11:343–348, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Solubility, metastable zone width, and racemic characterization of propranolol hydrochloride

Characterization of the racemic species, which can be a racemic compound, a racemic conglomerate, or a pseudoracemate (solid solution), is a prerequisite for the design of crystallization resolution processes. It is useful to determine the solid/liquid equilibrium solubility of the enantiomer mixtures for crystallization operation. For the beta-blocker drug propranolol hydrochloride, Gibbs free energy of formation of racemic compound and entropy of mixing of the (R)- and (S)- enantiomers in the liquid state for racemic conglomerate were calculated. The structural differences between (R, S)-propranolol hydrochloride and its (S)-enantiomer were further investigated by powder X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectra, and solid-state NMR spectra. The solubility and metastable zone width of (R, S)- propranolol hydrochloride in a mixed solvent of methanol and acetone were determined by cooling crystallization over the temperature range 3.5-42.5 degrees C. The ternary solubility diagram of (R)-, (S)-propranolol hydrochloride was constructed using the same mixed solvent. The diagram will be useful as a guide for choosing crystallization operation conditions to produce pure enantiomers.     

Synthesis of Optically Active 1,4-Thiazane-3-carboxylic Acid via Optical Resolution by Preferential Crystallization of (RS)-2-Amino-3-[(2-chloroethyl)sulfanyl]propanoic Acid Hydrochloride

Optically active 1,4-thiazane-3-carboxylic acid [TCA] was synthesized from cysteine via optical resolution by preferential crystallization. The intermediate (RS)-2-amino-3-[(2-chloroethyl)sulfanyl]propanoic acid hydrochlo-ride [(RS)-ACS?HCl] was found to exist as a conglomerate based on its melting point, solubility and IR spectrum. (RS)-ACS?HCl was optically resolved by preferential crystallization to yield (R)- and (S)-ACS?HCl. (R)- and (S)-ACS?HCl thus obtained were recrystallized from a mixture of hydrochloric acid and 2-propanol, taking account of the solubility of (RS)-ACS?HCl, efficiently yielding both enantiomers in optically pure forms. (R)- and (S)-TCA were then respectively synthesized by the cyclization of (R)- and (S)-ACS?HCl in ethanol in the presence of triethylamine.     

Investigation of the phase diagrams of chiral praziquantel

In the present work, thermal properties of praziquantel, including melting point phase diagram and solubility, were determined for the purpose of exploration on an integrated enantioseparation process of chromatography and crystallization. The solubility of racemic praziquantel in methanol and 2-propanol was measured in the temperature range between 0 and 40 degrees C. In agreement with previous conclusions, the resulting phase diagram reveals the racemic compound behavior of praziquantel arising from the existence of eutectics. A ternary phase diagram of praziquantel enantiomers and the methanol system was also determined. Based on the information provided by the ternary solubility phase diagram, an optimized integrated enantioseparation process was suggested. Pure praziquantel crystals were recovered, and the crystal structure was solved by X-ray crystallography.     

Optical resolution by preferential crystallization of 4-methylpiperidinium hydrogen (RS)-phenylsuccinate

Gibbs energy of racemate formation, binary melting point diagram, and ternary solubility diagram suggested that 4-piperidinium hydrogen (RS)-phenylsuccinate [(RS)-4-MP salt] exists in a conglomerate. Appropriate conditions were explored on the basis of free energy of critical nucleation in a supersaturated solution to resolve efficiently (RS)-4-MP salt by preferential crystallization. Successive preferential crystallization of (RS)-4-MP salt in ethanol at 20°C gave (R)- and (S)-4-MP salts of 90–94% optical purities. Optically pure (R)- and (S)-phenylsuccinic acids were obtained by recrystallization of the (R)- and (S)-4-MP salts, followed by treatment of the salts purified with hydrochloric acid. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Online monitoring of preferential crystallization of enantiomers

Polarimetry is used for continuous online monitoring of optical resolution by preferential crystallization. In combination with refractometry the liquid phase composition is determined, allowing one to follow the resolution progress quantitatively. The measurement techniques were calibrated up to relatively high solution concentrations and combined with the crystallizer. The resolution of DL-threonine was performed by preferential crystallization experiments in aqueous solution varying several process parameters like supersaturation, seed amount, initial enantiomeric excess, and scale. The resolution progress can be conveniently described by profiles of the optical rotation (polarimetric signal) and the crystallization pathway in the corresponding ternary phase diagram. The method outlined is applicable for dynamic process optimization and control purposes in "quasi-continuous" chiral separation processes.     

Optical Resolution by Preferential Crystallization of (RS)-2-Amino-3-(2-carboxyethylthio)propanoic Acid

Electrophilic additions of DL- and L-Cys to propenoic acid afforded (RS)- and (R)-2-amino-3-(2-carboxyethylthio)propanoic acids [(RS)- and (R)-ACE], respectively. (RS)-ACE was found to exist as a conglomerate based on its melting point, solubility, and infrared spectrum. (RS)-ACE was optically resolved by preferential crystallization to yield (R)- and (S)-ACE. The obtained (R)- and (S)-ACE were efficiently recrystallized from water, taking account of the solubility of (RS)-ACE, to give them in optically pure form.     

Role of latent heat in chiral symmetry breaking transition in the crystallization of 1,1'-binaphthyl

The influence of latent heat dissipated by the crystallization of 1,1'-binaphthyl in its supercooled molten state on the chiral symmetry breaking transition was investigated. Temperature change in the crystallization system was monitored by infrared thermocamera. Temperature rise due to the dissipation of latent heat in the growing front of polycrystalline aggregate was about 2 degrees C in an unstirred crystallization system. The melting point of racemic mixture and racemic compound of 1,1'-binaphthyl is 145 degrees C and 158 degrees C, respectively. The latent heat generated by the crystallization could thus change the crystallization behavior when the initial temperature of the melt was slightly lower than 145 degrees C. The temperature change in both unstirred and stirred crystallization systems was monitored. In the stirred crystallization system, even in the case when the initial temperature of the melt was about 2 degrees C lower than 145 degrees C, the temperature rose by about 4 degrees C immediately after the onset of crystallization. This indicates that the role of stirring as the critical parameter for the chiral symmetry breaking transition is not only to clone the chiral crystals but also to enhance the dissipation of latent heat due to secondary nucleation.