The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses of the red deer (Cervus elaphus)--anatomical corrosion studies]

By means of thirty skulls of dominating female animals the formation and topography of the Cavum nasi and its Sinus paranasales of the red-deer are described. The main results are on the one hand the total absence of a Sinus frontalis and a Sinus sphenoidalis and on the other hand the characteristic formation of the Sinus ethmoidales. Amongst critical discussion with the available literature concerning the pneumatisation of skulls of red-deer a comparison with the well-known findings about the Cavum nasi and its Sinus paranasalis at the sheep, goat, roe-deer and cattle is following.     

Quantification of cranial convergences in arvicolids (Rodentia)

Cranial convergence in nine species of arvicolids is quantified phenetically using geometric morphometry. In a preliminary step, a hypothesis about phyletic relationships is proposed as a framework against which to examine morphological comparisons. The cranial morphology is then depicted in three series of 37, 20 and 13 landmarks characterizing the lower, upper and lateral sides of the skull respectively. Superimposition (Procrustes) methods are used to quantify shape differences and establish phenograms for the three sides of the skull. The phenogram obtained for lateral sides reveals a strong connection between skull profile and mode of life: surface dwelling forms have elongated skulls whereas burrowers have angular skulls. The phenogram of the lower sides show no clear correlation between shape and mode of life. Analysis of the upper cranial sides revealed a substantial difference between hard-substrate burrowers and other ecological groups. The results of the morphological analyses are compared with the phyletic hypothesis and with ecological data to explore how convergences take place in the evolution of arvicolids. Analyses pointed out three instances of morphological convergence: one between Synaptomys cooperi and voles, one between Lagurus lagurus and lemmings, and one between Myopus schisticolor and some voles. Four main ecological events are discussed.     

Infection of roe-deer in France by the lung nematode, Dictyocaulus eckerti Skrjabin, 1931 (Trichostrongyloidea): influence of environmental factors and host density

The prevalence of the lungworm, Dictyocaulus eckerti, was studied in a sample of 603 roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus) in the Rhone district of France. The mean prevalence of infection (17%) in deer in a given area fluctuated according to the percentage of the area covered with forest, or lake and river. The density of roe-deer or domestic ruminants, the type of forest and the maximum elevation of the site were not related to the prevalence of infection.     

Bone structure and the patterns of force transmission in the cat skull (Felis catus)

Projection microradiography was used to determine the density and orientation of the force transmitting structures, i.e., trabeculae and bone lying between approximately parallel vascular canals, within the bones of cat skulls. The organisation in the skulls was confirmed statistically for a total of ten cats. The results of the observations showed that within specific areas of the skull a high degree of structural orientation and an increased density of osseous structures was present. The distribution of these characters corresponded in contiguous bones such that a continuum of structural organisation was established between the alveolar region and the site of attachment of the temporalis and masseter muscles and the glenoid region. The patterns of force transmission during jaw closure were determined when a resistance was placed initially between the canines and then the carnassials. An analysis was first carried out on dry skulls using colophonium resin to determine the direction of the force distribution. The nature and the approximate magnitude of the forces were ascertained by replacing the resin with strain gauges. The basic similarities in the strain patterns recorded from the dry skulls and those from the ten anaesthetised cats in which strain gauges had been intra-vitally implanted, substantiated the recordings made on the dry skulls. Combination of the results from the three sets of experiments defined the patterns of force distribution in the cat skull during the closure of the mandible against a resistance. The results showed that: (1) the combined action of the temporalis and masseter muscles tended to reduce the overall strain in the skull bones, and that the deformations produced by the action of the masseter were greater than that exerted by the temporalis muscles; (2) during biting, whether the resistance was placed between the canines or carnassials, compressive forces predominated in the facial bones; (3) small movements observed between facial bones indicated the presence of a flexible component within the skull, thus allowing large forces to be exerted during biting without overstressing the facial bones; (4) the glenoid fossa is part of a force bearing joint; (5) forces generated during biting were resisted within the skull by forces of an opposite nature generated within the system, the incompressible nature of bone and by the effect of the soft tissues; (6) the nature and the magnitude of the strain altered when a resistance was placed at the canines and then at the carnassials; however, the pattern of force distribution within the skull remained the same; (7) there was a direct correspondence between the detailed structural organisation of the bones and the patterns of force distribution. This conclusion would appear to apply in general to mammalian skulls. The study also emphasises the importance, neglected hitherto, of carrying out a variety of experiments to determine the patterns of force distribution in bones. The Trajectorial Theory of bone organisation is discussed and, on the basis of the results obtained, a modified theory is proposed. This states that: the structural continuum is common to the compact and cancellous bone and comprises bony bars which are aligned in the optimum direction for the transmission of force to a region in the bone or bones where it is effectively resisted.     

Transcranial Near-Infrared Laser Transmission (NILT) Profiles (800 nm): Systematic Comparison in Four Common Research Species

Background and Purpose

Transcranial near-infrared laser therapy (TLT) is a promising and novel method to promote neuroprotection and clinical improvement in both acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as acute ischemic stroke (AIS), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients based upon efficacy in translational animal models. However, there is limited information in the peer-reviewed literature pertaining to transcranial near-infrared laser transmission (NILT) profiles in various species. Thus, in the present study we systematically evaluated NILT characteristics through the skull of 4 different species: mouse, rat, rabbit and human.

Results

Using dehydrated skulls from 3 animal species, using a wavelength of 800nm and a surface power density of 700 mW/cm2, NILT decreased from 40.10% (mouse) to 21.24% (rat) to 11.36% (rabbit) as skull thickness measured at bregma increased from 0.44 mm in mouse to 0.83 mm in rat and then 2.11 mm in rabbit. NILT also significantly increased (p<0.05) when animal skulls were hydrated (i.e. compared to dehydrated); but there was no measurable change in thickness due to hydration.In human calvaria, where mean thickness ranged from 7.19 mm at bregma to 5.91 mm in the parietal skull, only 4.18% and 4.24% of applied near-infrared light was transmitted through the skull. There was a slight (9.2-13.4%), but insignificant effect of hydration state on NILT transmission of human skulls, but there was a significant positive correlation between NILT and thickness at bregma and parietal skull, in both hydrated and dehydrated states.

Conclusion

This is the first systematic study to demonstrate differential NILT through the skulls of 4 different species; with an inverse relationship between NILT and skull thickness. With animal skulls, transmission profiles are dependent upon the hydration state of the skull, with significantly greater penetration through hydrated skulls compared to dehydrated skulls. Using human skulls, we demonstrate a significant correlation between thickness and penetration, but there was no correlation with skull density. The results suggest that TLT should be optimized in animals using novel approaches incorporating human skull characteristics, because of significant variance of NILT profiles directly related to skull thickness.     

Hrdlicka revisited (external auditory canal exostoses)

To determine possible matter of opinion as to the existence of exostoses in the outer ear canals of Indian skulls from Dakota as an explanation for the marked difference in incidence of these tumors found by Hrdlicka and by us in previous studies, we have examined skeletal specimens reportedly seen by Hrdlicka, independently, and compared his and our results. The Smithsonian-Mobridge skulls both in Hrdlicka's and our opinion show definitely more exostoses than are found in other South Dakota Indian skeletal material we have examined. Our results here suggest a 5–6% difference attributable to opinion of the examiner. Reasons for the dissimilarity in frequency of exostoses between the Smithsonian-Mobridge skulls and other Dakota Indian skeletal collections are advanced.     

Periodontal disease in southern African bushpigs (Potamochoerus porcus) and warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus)

Periodontal lesions were found in 14 of 100 bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus) skulls and nine of 103 warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) skulls from southern Africa. The prevalence of periodontal disease showed a significant increase with age in the bushpig but not in the warthog skulls. All the lesions affected the cheek teeth, particularly the molars. The lower prevalence of lesions in older warthogs may be associated with their specialised molars and abrasive diet.     

Aberrant growth of maxillary canine teeth in male babirusa (genus Babyrousa)

A worldwide survey of babirusa skulls curated in museum and private collections located 431 that were from adult males and had retained at least one maxillary canine tooth. Eighty-three of these skulls were identified as exhibiting aberrant maxillary canine tooth growth. Twenty-four of the skulls represented babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands, and forty-five skulls represented babirusa from Sulawesi and the Togian Islands. The remaining series of fourteen babirusa skulls originally came from zoo animals. Fifteen skulls showed anomalous alveolar and tooth rotation in a median plane. Twenty-nine skulls had maxillary canine teeth that did not grow symmetrically towards the median plane of the cranium. Fourteen skulls showed evidence that the tips of one or both maxillary canine teeth had eroded the nasal bones. Twenty-one skulls had maxillary canine teeth that had eroded the frontal bones. The teeth of two skulls had eroded a parietal bone. One skull had two maxillary canines arising from an adjacent pair of alveoli on the left side of the cranium. Three skulls exhibited alveoli with no formed maxillary canine teeth in them. Analysis suggested that approximately 12% of the adult male babirusa in the wild experience erosion of the cranial bony tissues as a result of maxillary canine tooth growth. There was no skeletal evidence that maxillary canine teeth penetrate the eye.     

Paleopathology of the Ptolemaic inhabitants of Dakhleh Oasis (Egypt)

The Author presents four cases of leprosy diagnosed on the skulls discovered in the course of anthropological works carried out as a part of the excavations of I.F.A.O.The leprosy was diagnosed in White representatives of ruling class from the Ptolemaic period (2nd century B.C.) buried at the exclusive necropolis. The paleopathological conclusions are drawn on the basis of demographical data.     

Betrachtungen an Schädeln von Goldfischen (Carassius gibelio f. auratus)

Studies on skulls of goldfishes (Carassius gibelio f. auratus) The aim of the study is to analse skulls of some races of goldfish, the domesticated form of Carassius gibelio Bloch, 1782. The problem: are changes of these skulls parallelisms to skulls of other domesticated animals originating from different species. Parallelism is a most interesting phenomenon of phylogeny abundant but not regular, very frequent in domesticated animals. Skulls of normal goldfish, of frinetail and tigerhead have been compared. In total the skulls of fringetail and especially tigerhead are broader, higher, stouter, the faceart shortened. Remarkable in detail: the opercula are slender and higher in fringetail and tigerhead than in normal goldfish, the preopercula shortened and their ventral art bended upwards, influencin the position of the mouth. In comparison with normal goldfish the skulls of fringetail and tigerhead have to be classified als parallelisms to skulls of some races of other domesticated secies. Finally: some remarks on parallelism, convergence and pluripotenz and agout modern viewpoints on the relations between genes and complex organismal patterns.     

山顶洞人与现代华北人头骨非测量性特征比较及中国更新世晚期人类演化的一些问题

山顶洞人化石是迄今在东亚地区发现的数量最为丰富、保存状态最为完好的更新世晚期人类化石。多年来,山顶洞人作为东亚地区更新世晚期人类的代表,在研究东亚地区现代蒙古人种及美洲印第安人起源方面发挥着重要作用。随着对现代人起源与演化研究的深入,学术界对更新世晚期人类演化及现代人群形成过程的许多细节及演化机制予以了越来越多的注意,提出了现代人群出现时间及现代人群分化时间的概念。一些研究对山顶洞人的演化程度及其在东亚地区现代人群形成上的作用也提出了不同看法。为了深入探讨这些问题,本文对12项颅骨非测量特征在山顶洞人与现代中国人的表现情况进行了对比研究。发现有8项特征在山顶洞人与现代中国人之间具有不同的表现,作者认为山顶洞人在颅骨特征表现上较现代中国人具有更多的原始性。在此基础上,作者就更新世晚期人群内部变异、现代人群特征标准等问题进行了讨论。     

A comparative study of the Neolithic and Modern human skulls in China

The Neolithic human skulls of this study date from about 6000 years ago (4750–3700 B.C.) and they have been subjected to a cephalometric evaluation by computer and their mandibles and crown have been measured along with the Modern. The data resulting from this measurements have been compared and used in significant tests that led to interesting conclusions. The average Neolithic human ANB angle turned out to be smaller (P<0.05), while their 1-NA (mm) and 1-AP (mm) resulted to be large in comparison with the Modern one. Both Y axis angle and the occlusal plane angle resulted to be smaller for the Neolithic skulls (P<0.01). This results suggest that the Neolithic facial skeleton shows a more evident development: the data of the mandibles are remarkably different in the Neolithic and in the Modern skulls. Indeed, the Neolithic human mandibles are larger: its impacted third molar is 7.5% (the Moderns is 26.5–45.0%; their third molar congenital deficiency is 9.4% (the Moderns is 40.6%). The significance of our results is then discussed.     

Morphometric variations of the skull in the Gray Wolf (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis>) in Iran

The Gray Wolf is a wide ranging carnivore in Iran, absent only in the central deserts and Dasht-e Lut. This study was carried out to verify whether, despite their high mobility, individual wolves belonging to different populations show morphological variations in the skull. We collected 48 skulls from various regions of Iran and measured 24 variables on the cranium. These primary variables were then used to generate six indices to examine any variations in the shape of the skulls collected in different regions of the country. Although the largest skulls collected for this study originated in the mountainous regions of the northwest, northeast, and west, principle component analysis (PCA) did not result in a meaningful difference in the size and shape of wolf skulls in different regions of Iran. Our results confirm that the minor morphological variations of the skull in wolves of Iran are not an evidence for the separation of wolf populations in different regions or the existence of various subspecies in the country. This uniformity can be explained by the strong gene flow among populations as well as high mobility of the wolf that facilitates movement of individuals between populations.     

Study of the anatomic metric values of the foramen magnum and its relation to sex

The sagittal and transverse diameters of the foramen magnum were examined in 100 human skulls (74 male, 26 female). The results were statistically analyzed and compared with those obtained by other authors. Our findings show that the sagittal and transverse diameters are clearly different, as well as the total area of the foramen magnum, these parameters being larger in male skulls than in female.     

Porphyrin Accumulation and Export by Isolated Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Plastids (Effect of Diphenyl Ether Herbicides)

We have investigated the formation of porphyrin intermediates by isolated barley (Hordeum vulgare) plastids incubated for 40 min with the porphyrin precursor 5-aminolevulinate and in the presence and absence of a diphenylether herbicide that blocks protoporphyrinogen oxidase, the enzyme in chlorophyll and heme synthesis that oxidizes protoporphyrinogen IX to protoporphyrin IX. In the absence of herbicide, about 50% of the protoporphyrin IX formed was found in the extraplastidic medium, which was separated from intact plastids by centrifugation at the end of the incubation period. In contrast, uroporphyrinogen, an earlier intermediate, and magnesium protoporphyrin IX, a later intermediate, were located mainly within the plastid. When the incubation was carried out in the presence of a herbicide that inhibits protoporphyrinogen oxidase, protoporphyrin IX formation by the plastids was completely abolished, but large amounts of protoporphyrinogen accumulated in the extraplastidic medium. To detect extraplastidic protoporphyrinogen, it was necessary to first oxidize it to protoporphyrin IX with the use of a herbicide-resistant protoporphyrinogen oxidase enzyme present in Escherichia coli membranes. Protoporphyrinogen is not detected by some commonly used methods for porphyrin analysis unless it is first oxidized to protoporphyrin IX. Protoporphyrin IX and protoporphyrinogen found outside the plastid did not arise from plastid lysis, because the percentage of plastid lysis, measured with a stromal marker enzyme, was far less than the percentage of these porphyrins in the extraplastidic fraction. These findings suggest that of the tetrapyrrolic intermediates synthesized by the plastids, protoporphyrinogen and protoporphyrin IX, are the most likely to be exported from the plastid to the cytoplasm. These results help explain the extraplastidic accumulation of protoporphyrin IX in plants treated with photobleaching herbicides. In addition, these findings suggest that plastids may export protoporphyrinogen or protoporphyrin IX for mitochondrial heme synthesis.     

Comparaison de l'expression de certains caractères crâniens sur les hominidés chinois du Pléistocène récent et de l'Holocène (grotte supérieure de Zhoukoudian, sites de Longxian et de Yanqing)

The human remains recovered from “Grotte supérieure de Zhoukoudian” are the best-preserved Late Pleistocene human fossils in East Asia. For decades, as the representative of the Late Pleistocene human in East Asia, the Upper Cave skulls have been playing important role in the research of origins of modern Mongoloids and American Indians. With the advance of the origin and evolution of modern humans, more attention has been paid to the details and the mechanisms for the late Pleistocene human evolution and the formation of modern human populations. Both the origin and diversification of modern humans have been stressed. Some studies further trigger the debaters on the Upper Cave Man concerning its evolutionary level and its role in the formation of modern human populations in East Asia. To further explore these problems, we examined and compared 12 non-metric features on the 3 Late Pleistocene Upper Cave skulls and 162 Holocene individuals earthed from two archaeological sites of North China (Longxian and Yanqing). Our results indicate that 8 on the 12 features have different expression patterns between Upper Cave Man and recent Chinese leading the authors to believe that more primitive expressions appeared on the Upper Cave Man than on recent Chinese populations. Based on these findings, some problems on the intragroup variation in Late Pleistocene and Holocene populations are discussed.     

Comparative Skull Analysis Suggests Species-Specific Captivity-Related Malformation in Lions (Panthera leo)

Lion (Panthera leo) populations have dramatically decreased worldwide with a surviving population estimated at 32,000 across the African savannah. Lions have been kept in captivity for centuries and, although they reproduce well, high rates of stillbirths as well as morbidity and mortality of neonate and young lions are reported. Many of these cases are associated with bone malformations, including foramen magnum (FM) stenosis and thickened tentorium cerebelli. The precise causes of these malformations and whether they are unique to captive lions remain unclear. To test whether captivity is associated with FM stenosis, we evaluated 575 lion skulls of wild (N = 512) and captive (N = 63) origin. Tiger skulls (N = 276; 56 captive, 220 wild) were measured for comparison. While no differences were found between males and females or between subadults and adults in FM height (FMH), FMH of captive lions (17.36±3.20 mm) was significantly smaller and with greater variability when compared to that in wild lions (19.77±2.11 mm). There was no difference between wild (18.47±1.26 mm) and captive (18.56±1.64 mm) tigers in FMH. Birth origin (wild vs. captive) as a factor for FMH remained significant in lions even after controlling for age and sex. Whereas only 20/473 wild lions (4.2%) had FMH equal to or smaller than the 5^th percentile of the wild population (16.60 mm), this was evident in 40.4% (23/57) of captive lion skulls. Similar comparison for tigers found no differences between the captive and wild populations. Lions with FMH equal to or smaller than the 5^th percentile had wider skulls with smaller cranial volume. Cranial volume remained smaller in both male and female captive lions when controlled for skull size. These findings suggest species- and captivity-related predisposition for the pathology in lions.     

Studies on the skull of the Henophidia (Reptilia: Serpentes)

The skulls of Cylindrophis, Anilius, Uropeltis and other genera of Uropeltidae, Xenopeltis and Loxocemus are described and figured.
On the basis of cranial characters, a separation of the Aniliidae into two subfamilies, the Aniliinaeand theCylindrophinaeis suggested. The Uropeltidae, separated from the Aniliidae by a set of derived characters, are grouped together with the Aniliidae as the superfamily Anilioidea. The skulls of Xenopeltis and Loxocemus are described and the systematic position of the genera discussed. General remarks as to the bearing of the skull on the reconstruction of henophidian phylogeny conclude the study.     

The effect of artificial cranial deformation on the incidence of wormian bones in the lambdoidal suture

One hundred and twenty adult and 80 human fetal skulls were examined to find the relationship (if any) between the presence of wormian bones in the lambdoidal suture and artificial deformation of the skull. Wormian bones occur in deformed and undeformed skulls with no significant differences. Wormian bones detected in fetal skulls preclude cultural deformation as an important factor in the formation of these bones. It is hypothesized that a genetic predisposition (genes allowing formation of secondary ossification centers) is present and that wormian bones are under direct genetic control regardless of the presence or absence of detectable cultural deformation.