Dispersal for distance? Acacia ligulata seeds and meat ants Iridomyrmex viridiaeneus

Abstract Ant seed dispersal distances are typically small, averaging less than 1 m in published studies. Here, a new record (180 m) for ant seed dispersal distance is reported, and preliminary observations are made on the interaction between meat ants Iridomyrmex viridiaeneus Viehmeyer (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and diaspores of the sandhill wattle, Acacia ligulata A. Cunn. ex Benth. (Fabaceae) in Kinchega National Park, New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Iridomyrmex viridiaeneus moved diaspores over distances of 7–180 m (mean 93.9 m) from the source trees to their nests, removed the arils underground and discarded the seeds over a 3000‐m² area surrounding the nest. A germination trial determined that the viability of discarded seeds was 40%, with 80% of the viable seeds in a dormant condition. Although the cumulative effects of I. viridiaeneus on A. ligulata recruitment require further investigation, this study and others raise the possibility that myrmecochorous systems in the Australian arid zone may be characterized by longer dispersal distances than those in other parts of the world. Long‐distance seed movement by ants lends credence to the hypothesis that distance dispersal (in contrast to directed dispersal) could be of benefit to myrmecochorous plants.     

Effects of seed passage through slugs on germination

Seed dispersal by invertebrates is mostly external (e.g. by ants). However, internal dispersal (endozoochory) seems to be uncommon due to size limitations. Slugs are generalist herbivores and increasing evidence suggests that they often disperse seeds. Nevertheless, we know very little on the consequences for plant recruitment. Here, we assess the effect of slug seed passage on germination and early seedling establishment of a set of nine common plant species with limited dispersal capabilities (unassisted or ant dispersed). Germination trials were performed under natural conditions (NW of Spain). Size was a clear limitation for seed ingestion: smaller seeds were eaten more readily, whereas only the largest slugs could swallow the largest seeds. All ingested seeds were voided undamaged. Only not-ingested seeds (the biggest) were damaged, with chewing marks in the surface and 0.8% (N = 250) were broken. In some cases, slugs ate the elaiosomes but discarded the seeds. Slug seed passage had an overall positive effect on total germination and sped it up in two species. Elaiosome removal by slugs had also a positive effect in Ulex europaeus seeds (+160%). However, slugs had no effect on early seedling survival and growth of the study species. Our results show that slugs are effective dispersers in terms of seed treatment in the digestive track. However, according to their reduced movement range (in the range of tens of metres; as shown by other studies), they can only provide rather limited dispersal as compared to vertebrate dispersers. This can be nonetheless significant for species with limited dispersal, e.g. unassisted and ant-dispersed plants, for which they act as non-standard dispersers.     

GERMINATION AND SEEDLING EMERGENCE IN SPERGULA ARVENSIS

Spergula arvensis L. (Caryophyllaceae) is a cosmopolitan weedy annual that exhibits a genetically based seed coat polymorphism in which two primary seed types, papillate (P) and nonpapillate (NP), are produced. This study examined germination response of the two morphs and seedling emergence in Pacific coast populations. Germination behavior was complex and variable among populations and between seed morphs. Seeds from some populations exhibited greater temperature sensitivity and/or differentiation between morphs. Freshly produced seeds from grassland and ruderal populations were strongly dormant at the time of dispersal, in contrast to seeds from cultivated or summer-wet populations. In San Francisco Bay area populations, germination and seedling emergence was largely simultaneous, following the first substantial fall rains.     

Imbibition phases and germination response of Mimosa bimucronata (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae) to water submersion

Mimosa bimucronata is a pioneering tree that occurs predominantly in moist lowlands, floodplains and on margins of rivers and lakes in Latin America. The effect of submergence on seed germination in M. bimucronata was firstly studied. Patterns of water absorption by M. bimucronata seeds were investigated thereafter to assess the imbibition phases of scarified and unscarified seeds. The germination percentage was significantly higher in scarified than in unscarified seeds, and the velocity of seed germination also increased considerably in scarified seeds. Submergence duration did not significantly affect germination percentages of scarified and unscarified seeds. Therefore, seed viability after submersion suggests that M. bimucronata may display hydrochorous dispersal and also that seeds are able to germinate successfully in areas with frequent seasonal flooding. With respect to imbibition phases, phase II was very short or even absent for scarified and unscarified seeds; therefore, a plateau, where water absorption by seeds is established, was not observed. Finally, we verified that the passage from phase I to III was very tenuous and took a long time in seeds without scarification.     

R.M. Cowling,D.M. Richardson & S.M. Pierce (eds.) 1977. Vegetation of Southern Africa.

We determined the role of bird dispersal in seed and seedling dynamics of the tree Kalopanax pictus from 7 years of observing seed rain and seedling emergence in a broad-leaved deciduous forest in central Japan. We also performed an experiment on the influence of seed pulp on germination of seeds of K. pictus. Seeds of this species can lie dormant for several years, and this causes rather constant yearly seedling emergence in spite of irregular seed production. The spatial distribution of the seedlings that emerged each year (maximum distance from nearest conspecific seed-bearing tree of 90 m) was wider than that of gravity-dispersed seeds (max. distance of 37 m), suggesting seed dispersal by birds in winter. Emerged seedling densities at sites over 20 m from the nearest conspecific seed-bearing tree were highest in the spring of 1991, about half a year after the largest seed fall of the observation period. However, emerged seedling densities within 20 m from seed-bearing trees were highest in 1992, 1.5 years after the largest seed fall. These field observations may be explained by the experimental results on the effects of seed pulp on germination. Intact seeds germinate slowly at low germination rates, while seeds without seed pulp germinate quickly at high germination rates. Fallen seeds with seed pulp thus appear to form a seed bank near seed sources (temporal dispersal), while seeds scattered by birds appear to increase the possibility of reaching the present safe sites in distant areas with quick germination (spatial dispersal).     

Ant-mediated expansion of an obligate seeder species during the first years after fire

Most obligate seeder species build up a soil seed bank that is associated with massive seed germination in the year immediately after a fire. These species are also shade‐intolerant and disappear when vegetation cover closes, creating unsuitable conditions for seedling recruitment. The only way for these plants to expand their populations is when habitats suitable for seedling recruitment arise (i.e. in years immediately after a fire). However, short primary seed dispersal of obligate seeders does not allow these plants to colonise the suitable habitats, and these habitats can only be colonised by secondary seed dispersion. We hypothesised that Fumana ericoides, an obligate‐seeding small shrub, not only establishes abundantly in the first year after fire, but also expands its local range in the following years due to secondary dispersal by ants while suitable habitats are still available. We tested this hypothesis using experimental studies and a simulation model of potential population expansion in a recently burned area. Results showed that F. ericoides not only established prolifically in the year immediately after fire, but was also able to recruit new individuals and expand its population in the years following the fire, despite a low germination rate and short primary seed dispersal. Ant‐mediated seed dispersal and availability of suitable habitats were key factors in this phenomenon: ants redistributed seeds in suitable habitats while they were available, which accelerated the expansion of F. ericoides because new plants established far away from the core population.     

Endozoochorous dispersal of aquatic plants: does seed gut passage affect plant performance?

The ingestion of seeds by vertebrates can affect the germinability and/or germination rate of seeds. It is, however, unclear if an earlier germination as a result of ingestion affects later plant performance. For sago pondweed, Potamogeton pectinatus, the effects of seed ingestion by ducks on both germinability and germination rate have been previously reported from laboratory experiments. We performed an experiment to determine the effects of seed ingestion by ducks on germination, seedling survival, plant growth and asexual multiplication. Both at the start and end of the winter, seeds were fed to three captive shovelers (Anas clypeata) and planted outdoors in water-filled containers. Plant biomass and its allocation to vegetative parts (shoot and roots), tubers, and seeds were determined in autumn. More duck-ingested seeds than control (uningested) seeds germinated in early winter, but this difference disappeared for seeds planted in late winter, when the treatments were first stratified for 3 mo. None of the variables for measuring seedling survival and plant performance varied between treatments. Under our experimental conditions (no herbivory or competition), ingestion by ducks in early winter resulted in increased performance for seeds surviving gut passage due to enhanced seed germinability, without other costs or benefits for the seedlings.     

Directed vertebrate-mediated seed dispersal of a fleshy-fruited amaryllid in a heterogenous habitat

Most plants with fleshy fruits have seeds that are ingested by animals, but a less well-understood mode of seed dispersal involves fleshy fruits containing seeds that are discarded by frugivorous animals because they are too large or toxic to be ingested. We studied the seed dispersal biology of Haemanthus deformis, an amaryllid lily species found in a mosaic of bush clumps in a grassland matrix in South Africa. We asked whether seed dispersal is directed in and among bush clumps and whether germination and survival are greater for seeds dispersed to bush clumps than for those dispersed into grassland. Using camera trapping, we found that fruits are consumed mainly by birds and rodents. The pulp was removed from the seeds which were then discarded without ingestion. While many seeds were dispersed close to the parent plant, most (c. 78.5%) were dispersed further than 1 m away from the parent plant. Longer distance dispersal resulted mainly from birds flying off with fruits in their bill or from rodents engaging in scatter-hoarding behavior. Seedling survival was most successful within bush clumps as compared to grasslands and shade was identified as a primary requirement for seedling survival. Seeds from which the fruit pulp had been removed germinated faster than those in intact fruits. Haemanthus deformis deploys a system of directed seed dispersal, whereby both birds and rodents contribute to the dispersal of seeds within patchy bush clumps that are favorable for seedling survival.     

Seed germination and life history syndromes in the California chaparral

Syndromes are life history responses that are correlated to environmental regimes and are shared by a group of species (Stebbins, 1974). In the California chaparral there are two syndromes contrasted by the timing of seedling recruitment relative to wildfires. One syndrome, here called the fire-recruiter or refractory seed syndrome, includes species (both resprouting and non-resprouting) which share the feature that the timing of seedling establishment is specialized to the first rainy season after fire. Included are woody, suffrutescent and annual life forms but no geophytes have this syndrome. These species are linked by the characteristic that their seeds have a dormancy which is readily broken by environmental stimuli such as intense heat shock or chemicals leached from charred wood. Such seeds are referred to as “refractory” and dormancy, in some cases, is due to seed coat impermeability (such seeds are commonly called hardseeded), but in other cases the mechanism is unknown. Seeds of some may require cold stratification and/or light in addition to fire related stimuli. In the absence of fire related cues, a portion or all of a species’ seed pool remains dormant. Most have locally dispersed seeds that persist in the soil seed bank until the site burns. Dispersal of propagules is largely during spring and summer which facilitates the avoidance of flowering and fruiting during the summer and fall drought. Within a life form (e.g., shrub, suffrutescent, etc.), the seeds of these species have less mass than those of species with non-refractory seeds and this possibly reflects the environmental favorableness of the postfire environment for seedling establishment. Regardless of when fire occurs, germination is normally delayed until late winter or early spring. In the absence of fire, or other disturbance, opportunities for population expansion are largely lacking for species with this syndrome. The other syndrome, here called the fire-resister or non-refractory seed syndrome, includes species that are resilient to frequent fires (mostly by vegetative resprouting), but require fire-free periods for recruiting new seedlings. Included are shrubs, subshrubs, suffrutescents, lianas, geophytes and annuals. All are linked by the characteristic that their seeds germinate in the absence of cues related to wildfires. In many cases no form of seed dormancy is present and the seeds germinate soon after dispersal; consequently these species do not accumulate a persistent seed bank. Germination and seedling establishment is independent of fire and thus opportunities for population expansion are also independent of fire. The demographic pattern of seedling recruitment varies with the life form. For shrubs, seedling recruitment may be restricted to sites free of fire for periods of a hundred years or more. Recruitment appears to require relatively mesic conditions and this may account for the patchy distribution of these species within the matrix of relatively arid sites. Finding such sites has selected for propagules specialized for wind or animal dispersal; the majority are bird dispersed. These shrub species all disperse fruits in fall and winter and this may have been selected to take advantage of migratory birds as well as to time dispersal to the winter rains typical of the mediterranean-climate. Germination typically occurs within several weeks of the first fall or winter rains. Maturation of flowers and fruits during the summer and fall drought may account for the distribution of these species on more mesic sites. Seed mass of these species is large and this may have been selected to provide an advantage to seedlings establishing under the canopy of this dense shrub community.     

Seed Dispersal of a High Quality Fruit by Specialized Frugivores: High Quality Dispersal?1

Dispersal quality, as estimated by the cumulative effects of dispersal, germination, seed predation, and seedling survival, was examined for Beilschmiedia pendula (Lauraceae) in Monteverde, Costa Rica. I determined the pattern of dispersal by finding seeds deposited by birds, protected the seeds from seed predators with cages to assess germination and seedling survival, and examined seed predation rates with marked seeds. Seed predation, germination, and seedling survival were compared between seeds naturally dispersed by birds and seeds placed at randomly located sites. Approximately 70 percent of seeds dispersed by birds (N= 244) were deposited <10 m from crown edges of fruiting B. pendula trees, although some seeds were dispersed at least 70 m away. Larger seeds were more likely to be dispersed under or close to the parent trees, and larger seeds produced larger seedlings. Seed size was not correlated directly with seedling survival, but larger seedlings at three months were most likely to survive one year. Seed predation by mammals and insects and seedling mortality due to fungal pathogens were concentrated beneath the crowns of parent trees. Seedlings and saplings were more abundant beneath fruiting B. pendula trees, but individuals farther away were taller on average. Thus, dispersal is beneficial for B. pendula, but such benefits appear most pronounced at a small spatial scale; seeds dispersed >30 m from the crown edges actually had a lower probability of survival than those dispersed 10–20 m. Only 10 percent of B. pendula. seeds received high‐quality dispersal in terms of landing in the zone with the highest per seed probability of seedling survival 10–20 m from parental crowns.     

The effect of limited visibility on vigilance behaviour and speed of predator detection: implications for the conservation of granivorous passerines

Ants have been traditionally considered either as predators or dispersers of seeds, but not both. That is, ant dispersal is restricted to myrmecochorous seeds, while almost all seeds removed by seed‐harvesting ants are eaten. However, harvesting ants might be simultaneously antagonistic and mutualistic towards seeds. This study analyzes the predation–dispersal relationship between seed‐harvesting ants and seeds of Lobularia maritima, a non‐myrmechorous perennial herb, in order to disentangle the dual role of ants as dispersers and predators of L. maritima seeds. The results obtained confirm the role of harvesting ants as both predators and dispersers of the non‐myrmechorous seeds of L. maritima. The removal activity of Messor bouvieri on L. maritima seeds is very important, particularly in autumn, which is the flowering and fruiting peak of this plant. It can be estimated that harvesting ants collect more than 85% of seeds, and almost 70% of them are effectively lost to predation. However, these granivorous ants also have drawbacks as seed dispersers. There is a relatively small percent of seeds collected by ants that escape predation, either because they are dropped on the way to the nest (16.4% of seeds harvested), or because they are mistakenly rejected on the refuse pile (0.9%). Abiotic dispersal of L. maritima seeds in the absence of ants occurs over very short distances from the plant stem. As seeds dispersed by ants reach a considerably greater distance than that obtained by gravity, this might represent a real advantage for the species, because it reduces intraspecific adult competition for seedlings, which directly influences seedling survivorship. These results challenge the generalization that seed removal by ants generally leads to successful seed dispersal if done by legitimate seed dispersers, or seed loss if done by seed consumers that eat them, and confirm that harvesting ants might have a dual role as both predators and dispersers of nonmyrmechorous seeds.     

Savanna fires increase rates and distances of seed dispersal by ants

Myrmecochory (seed dispersal by ants) is a prominent dispersal mechanism in many environments, and can play a key role in local vegetation dynamics. Here we investigate its interaction with another key process in vegetation dynamics—fire. We examine ant dispersal of seeds immediately before and after experimental burning in an Australian tropical savanna, one of the world’s most fire-prone ecosystems. Specifically, our study addressed the effects of burning on: (1) the composition of ants removing seeds, (2) number of seed removals, and (3) distance of seed dispersal. Fire led to higher rates of seed removal post-fire when compared with unburnt habitat, and markedly altered dispersal distance, with mean dispersal distance increasing more than twofold (from 1.6 to 3.8 m), and many distance dispersal events greater than the pre-fire maximum (7.55 m) being recorded. These changes were due primarily to longer foraging ranges of species of Iridomyrmex, most likely in response to the simplification of their foraging landscape. The significance of enhanced seed-removal rates and distance dispersal for seedling establishment is unclear because the benefits to plants in having their seeds dispersed by ants in northern Australia are poorly known. However, an enhanced removal rate would enhance any benefit of reduced predation by rodents. Similarly, the broader range of dispersal distances would appear to benefit plants in terms of reduced parent–offspring conflict and sibling competition, and the location of favourable seedling microsites. Given the high frequency of fire in Australian tropical savannas, enhanced benefits of seed dispersal by ants would apply for much of the year.     

The role of Rhytidoponera metallica (Hymenoptera,Formicidae) in facilitating post‐fire seed germination of three ant‐dispersed legume species

The fire avoidance hypothesis proposes that a benefit of seed dispersal by ants (myrmecochory) is to protect seeds from being killed during fire and to facilitate post‐fire germination of seeds that require heat shock to break their physical dormancy. The aim of this study was to quantify the effect of fire and seed burial by a predominant seed‐dispersing ant, Rhytidoponera metallica (subfamily: Ectatomminae) on germination levels of three ant‐dispersed legume species (Pultenaea daphnoides, Acacia myrtifolia and Acacia pycnantha). Experimental burial of seeds within aluminium cans at a site prior to being burnt and at an adjacent unburnt site showed that fire increased germination levels, particularly for seeds buried at 1‐ and 2‐cm deep and that overall, germination levels differed among the three plant species. To quantify seed burial depths and post‐fire germination levels facilitated by R. metallica ants, seeds were fed to colonies prior to fire at the burnt and unburnt sites. Of the seeds buried within nests that were recovered, between 45% and 75% occurred within the upper 6 cm of the soil profile, although unexpectedly, greater percentages of seeds were recovered from the upper 0–2 cm of nests in the unburnt site compared with nests in the burnt site. Germination levels of buried seeds associated with R. metallica nests ranged from 21.2% to 29.5% in the burnt site compared with 3.1–14.8% in the unburnt site. While increased seed germination levels were associated with R. metallica nests following fire, most seeds were buried at depths below those where optimal temperatures for breaking seed dormancy occurred during the fire. We suggest that R. metallica ants may provide fire avoidance benefits to myrmecochorous seeds by burying them at a range of depths within a potential germination zone defined by intra‐ and inter‐fire variation in levels of soil heating.     

Factors Limiting Post‐logging Seedling Regeneration by Big‐leaf Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) in Southeastern Amazonia,Brazil, and Implications for Sustainable Management1

Post‐logging seedling regeneration density by big‐leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), a nonpioneer light‐demanding timber species, is generally reported to be low to nonexistent. To investigate factors limiting seedling density following logging within the study region, we quantified seed production rates, germinability, dispersal patterns, and seed fates on the forest floor through germination and the first seedling growing season in southeastern Amazonia, Brazil. Fruit production rates were low by three logged and one unlogged populations compared to reports from other regions. Commercial‐sized trees (>60 cm diameter) were more fecund than noncommercial trees (30–60 cm diameter) at two sites, averaging 14.5 vs. 3.9 fruits/tree/year, respectively, at Marajoara, a logged site, over 8 yr. Fruit capsules contained an average of 60.3 seeds/fruit, 70 percent of which appeared viable by visual inspection. Sixty‐seven to 72 percent of apparently viable seeds germinated in nursery beds 2.5 mo after the dispersal period, when wet season rains began. Dry season winds blew most seeds west‐northwest of parent trees, with median dispersal distances of 28 and 9 m on west and east sides of parent trees, respectively. Nearly 100 percent of seeds fell within an area of 0.91 ha. On the forest floor beneath closed canopies, mammals, invertebrates, and fungal pathogens killed 40 percent of apparently viable seeds, while 36 percent germinated. Nine months after seedling establishment—midway through the first logging season following seed dispersal—14 percent of outplanted seeds survived as seedlings, representing 5.8 seeds/fruit. We conclude that seedlings are likely to survive in logging gaps at appreciable densities only in rare cases where previous year fruit production rates by logged trees were high (4–12.5% of commercial‐sized trees/year at Marajoara) and where tree crowns were felled in west or northwest directions.     

Establishment of chasmogamous and cleistogamous seedlings of an ant-dispersed UNDERSTORY HERB,CALATHEA MICANS (Marantaceae)

This study compares the establishment success of cleistogamous (CL, obligately selfed) and chasmogamous (CH, potentially outcrossed) seeds of the neotropical understory herb, Calathea micans (Marantaceae). In this species, CH and CL seeds are morphologically identical and are both dispersed by ants. I measured dispersal distances and analyzed seedling recruitment and seedling size for ant-planted CH and CL seeds, a protocol made possible by the fact that the seed coat of C. micans can be indelibly marked and remains attached to the base of the seedling for a few months. Seeds were taken by ants from experimental depots placed in natural conditions. In a second experiment, I planted CH and CL seeds in gap and understory sites to determine the effects of seed type and light on germination percentage, date of emergence, and seed and seedling survivorship. Ant-planted CH and CL seedlings did not differ in dispersal distance. CH and CL seeds did not differ significantly in recruitment probability and seedling size in either experiment. However, for the ant-planted seedlings, CH recruitment was higher in the understory than in the gap, while CL recruitment was uniform across light environments. In conclusion, I found a difference in the establishment success of CH and CL seeds in this understory herb, only after dispersal by ants in field conditions.     

Vertebrate Fruit Removal and Ant Seed Dispersal in the Neotropical Ginger Renealmia alpinia (Zingiberaceae)*

Plants frequently display fruit characteristics that support multiple seed‐dispersal syndromes. These ambiguous characteristics may reflect the fact that seed dispersal is usually a complex process involving multiple dispersers. This is the case for the Neotropical ginger Renealmia alpinia (Zingiberaceae). It was originally suggested that the aromatic fruits of R. alpinia located at the base of the plant are adapted for terrestrial mammal seed dispersal. However, the dark‐purple coloration of the fruits and bright orange aril surrounding the seeds suggest that birds may play a role in R. alpinia seed dispersal. At La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica, we used camera traps to record vertebrate visits to infructescences of R. alpinia. Most visitors were toucans and aracaris (Ramphastidae). However fruits were also removed by terrestrial mammals (coatis and armadillos). In addition to vertebrate fruit removal, some of the fruits dehisce and the seeds that fall on the ground are dispersed by ants. Fruitfall traps showed that 77 percent of fruits are removed by vertebrates. However, 15 percent of fruits fall to the base of parent plants to be potentially dispersed by ants. Experiments using a laboratory ant colony showed that ants are effective seed dispersers of R. alpinia. Ant seed manipulation increased germination success and reduced time to germination. In conclusion, primary seed dispersal in the Neotropical ginger R. alpinia is mostly performed by birds, additionally ants are effective dispersers at short distances. Seed dispersal in R. alpinia is a complex process involving a diverse array of dispersal agents.     

Seed dispersal by ants in the semi-arid Caatinga of North-East Brazil

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Myrmecochory is a conspicuous feature of several sclerophyll ecosystems around the world but it has received little attention in the semi-arid areas of South America. This study addresses the importance of seed dispersal by ants in a 2500-km(2) area of the Caatinga ecosystem (north-east Brazil) and investigates ant-derived benefits to the plant through myrmecochory. METHODS: Seed manipulation and dispersal by ants was investigated during a 3-year period in the Xingó region. Both plant and ant assemblages involved in seed dispersal were described and ant behaviour was characterized. True myrmecochorous seeds of seven Euphorbiaceae species (i.e. elaiosome-bearing seeds) were used in experiments designed to: (1) quantify the rates of seed cleaning/removal and the influence of both seed size and elaiosome presence on seed removal; (2) identify the fate of seeds dispersed by ants; and (3) document the benefits of seed dispersal by ants in terms of seed germination and seedling growth. KEY RESULTS: Seed dispersal by ants involved one-quarter of the woody flora inhabiting the Xingó region, but true myrmecochory was restricted to 12.8 % of the woody plant species. Myrmecochorous seeds manipulated by ants faced high levels of seed removal (38-84 %) and 83 % of removed seeds were discarded on ant nests. Moreover, seed removal positively correlated with the presence of elaiosome, and elaiosome removal increased germination success by at least 30 %. Finally, some Euphorbiaceae species presented both increased germination and seedling growth on ant-nest soils. CONCLUSIONS: Myrmecochory is a relevant seed dispersal mode in the Caatinga ecosystem, and is particularly frequent among Euphorbiaceae trees and shrubs. The fact that seeds reach micro-sites suitable for establishment (ant nests) supports the directed dispersal hypothesis as a possible force favouring myrmecochory in this ecosystem. Ecosystems with a high frequency of myrmecochorous plants appear not to be restricted to regions of nutrient-impoverished soil or to fire-prone regions.     

Seasonal cycle of seed dormancy controls the recruitment of Butia odorata (ARECACEAE) seedlings in savanna‐like palm tree formations in southern Brazil

Butia odorata (Barb. Rodr.) Noblick is a palm tree that grows in savanna‐like formations in subtropical regions of South America, and whose regeneration is threatened by agricultural management. Its diaspores are dormant after dispersal which takes place during the summer and early autumn. The aim of this study was to investigate seasonal and microhabitat effects on the germination and seedling recruitment of this palm species. Diaspores were sown in the field, in both open lands and forest patches. During 2 years, we measured seed germination, viability and moisture, seedling emergence and germination response to warm stratification of those seeds that failed to germinate in the field. Germination was concentrated during the summer, when soil temperatures were highest, whilst seedling emergence peaked in the autumn and early winter, when temperature and humidity conditions became less extreme. In open lands, there were two pulses of germination (first and second summer), whilst in forest patches, a single pulse (second summer) was detected. Although overall germination did not differ between microhabitats, the percentage of seedling emergence from seeds that remained buried until the end of the experiment was almost twice as large in the forest patches compared with open areas. The viability of seeds declined over time, particularly in open areas. Laboratory‐induced warm stratification was found to act on seed dormancy release in a cyclic way, being far more effective on seeds retrieved from the field in spring–summer months than in those retrieved in the winter. This cyclic pattern of dormancy in B. odorata seeds results in major seedling recruitment after the summer, under wetter and cooler conditions, thus reducing mortality risk. This process can be enhanced by the presence of surrounding vegetation, which both increases seedling emergence and/or prolongs seed viability.     

The Effects of Gibberellic Acid and Scarification on the Seed Dormancy and Germination in Luzula spicata

Luzula spicata L. seeds are completely dormant at maturity. A germination inhibitor is present at the micropylar end. Normally, the only effective means of eliciting germination is a precise scarification of the micropylar end which inactivates the inhibitor. Exogenous application of gibberellic acid, kinetin, KNO₃, and thiourea have no affect on the dormancy of unscarified seeds. Scarification of the hilar end of the seed does not elicit germination, but when gibberellic acid is applied to the hilar scarified seeds moderate germination results. Presumably, these seeds are dormant due to a deficit of endogenous gibberellin; a condition which can be overcome by the application of gibberellic acid to seeds scarified at a site in itself ineffective in producing germination. Apparently the gibberellic acid serves to initiate amylase activity in the endosperm, overcoming the inhibitor block. Luzula spicata seed dormancy is apparently unique in that a germination inhibitor is operative in conjunction with the commonly recognized gibberellin-amylase mechanism.     

Preferential removal of non-injured seeds by an omnivorous ant,Tetramorium tsushimae Emery,in the seed dispersal of Chamaesyce maculata (L.) small

To elucidate roles of an omnivorous ant, Tetramorium tsushimae Emery, against pre-dispersal seed consumers in the seed dispersal of Chamaesyce maculata (L.) Small, the effects of the seed injury by a stinkbug, Nysius plebeius Distat, on the seed removal by the ant and the germination rate were examined in laboratory experiments. The ants of T. tsushimae removed more frequently non-injured seeds than injured seeds. Therefore, low removal frequency of injured seeds by T. tsushimae ants might facilitate the increase in removal frequency of non-injured seeds, consequently leading to efficient seed dispersal of C. maculata. The germination rate of injured seeds that N. plebeius nymphs sucked was conspicuously lower than the non-injured seeds. The germination rate of seeds that T. tsushimae ants carried out of their nest was similar to that of the non-injured seeds. Thus, seed removal by T. tsushimae ants has hardly effects on the germination of these seeds. Therefore, the preferential removal of non-injured seeds by T. tsushimae ants might contribute to the dispersal success of C. maculata seeds. These results might show a novel interaction between myrmecochorous plants and ants in which the assessment of seed quality by ants contributes to the reproductive success of plants.