Internode length in Pisum. Gibberellins and the slender phenotype

Pea plants ( Pisum sativum L.) possessing the slender phenotype (conferred by the gene combination la cry^s ) have extremely long, thin internodes and are phenotypically similar to dwarf plants (possessing genes La and/or Cry ) that have been treated with a non-limiting dose of gibberellin (GA₃). In contrast to tall and dwarf plants, slender plants are virtually insensitive to treatment with AMO 1618, PP333 or GA₃ and addition of the "gibberellin-less" mutant gene na does not alter the phenotype of slender plants. Na slender segregates possessed lower levels of gibberellin-like substances than comparable dwarf segregates when extracts from shoots were assayed using the lettuce hypocotyl or rice seedling bioassays. In addition, na slenders possessed little or no gibberellin-like activity even though they possessed a slender phenotype. Thus the gene combination la cry^s causes slender plants to respond as if they are saturated with gibberellins for growth. In addition, the gene combinations la cry^s and le la cry^c (allele cry^c is less extreme in effect than cry^s ) are shown to be almost completely epistatic to the alleles at the na locus. All these results suggest that gibberellin levels are not important in determining the internode length of slender peas (genotype la cry^s ). The possible mechanisms by which this could occur are discussed.     

温度对温敏核不育水稻eui突变体最上节间伸长的影响

以培矮64S为对照, 采用田间调查和人工温度处理方法研究了温度对温敏核不育水稻（Oryza sativa）eui突变体（双低培eS）最上节间伸长的影响。结果表明, 双低培eS穗颈伸出度与抽穗前12–17天（花粉母细胞形成期至减数分裂期）的日均温度呈显著负相关。在温度敏感期分别进行人工温度处理, 在18–26℃条件下穗颈伸出度为正值且不包颈; 在28℃条件下出现包颈现象。在可育温度（20℃）和不育温度（24℃）条件下, 双低培eS最上节间中GA1、IAA和ZR含量极显著地高于培矮64S, 而ABA含量则显著低于培矮64S, 最上节间中最内层薄壁细胞数目分别比培矮64S多1 177和823个, 细胞平均长度分别比培矮64S长23.2和16.7 μm。温敏核不育水稻eui突变体最上节间伸长是由于节间最内层薄壁细胞数目增多和细胞长度增加双重作用所致, 其中以细胞伸长为主, 且随着处理温度的升高, 最上节间最内层薄壁细胞数目减少, 细胞平均长度变短。eui基因还可能通过调节激素间的平衡来控制温敏核不育水稻eui突变体最上节间的伸长生长。     

赤霉素诱导甘蔗节间伸长的效应与相关酶活性的关系

以甘蔗品种'新台糖22号'为试验材料,在伸长初期以200 mg/L GA3进行叶面喷施处理,对照喷清水,研究GA3处理后甘蔗节间糖苷酶、过氧化物酶、过氧化氢酶的变化,以揭示赤霉素诱导甘蔗节间伸长与相关酶活性的关系.结果表明:(1)GA3处理的株高在各个时期显著高于对照,而且在处理后7、14和28 d分别比对照提高了17.32%、14.50%和8.35%,GA3处理引起甘蔗植株表现的高度优势一直保持到后期,节间伸长效果主要是在茎的中部(5～10节).(2)GA3处理后α-葡萄糖苷酶和α-甘露糖苷酶的活性较对照显著下降;POD和β-半乳糖苷酶的活性也略有下降;α-半乳糖苷酶、β-N-乙酰氨基已糖苷酶、过氧化氢酶的活性显著提高;β-葡萄糖苷酶的活性也有一定程度提高.由此推测,外源GA3主要通过调节α-葡萄糖苷酶活性、α-甘露糖苷酶、α-半乳糖苷酶、β-N-乙酰氨基已糖苷酶活性和过氧化氢酶,其次是POD、β-半乳糖苷酶和β-葡萄糖苷酶活性,最终达到节间伸长效果.     

Physical Basis for Altered Stem Elongation Rates in Internode Length Mutants of Pisum

Biophysical parameters related to gibberellin (GA)-dependent stem elongation were examined in dark-grown stem-length genotypes of Pisum sativum L. The rate of internode expansion in these genotypes is altered due to recessive mutations which affect either the endogenous levels of, or response to, GA. The GA deficient dwarf L181 (ls), two GA insensitive semierectoides dwarfs NGB5865 and NGB5862 (Ika and Ikb, respectively) and the `slender' line L197 (la cry^[ill]), which is tall regardless of GA content, were compared to the wild-type tall cultivar, Torsdag. Osmotic pressure, estimated by vapor pressure osmometry, and turgor pressure, measured directly with a pressure probe, did not correlate with the differences in growth rate among the genotypes. Mechanical wall properties of frozen-thawed tissue were measured using a constant force assay. GA deficiency resulted in increased wall stiffness judged both on the basis of plastic compliance and plastic extensibility normalized for equal stem circumference. Plastic compliance was not reduced in the GA insensitive dwarfs, though Ika reduced circumference-normalized plasticity. In contrast, in vivo wall relaxation, determined by the pressure-block technique, differed among genotypes in a manner which did correlate with extension rates. The wall yield threshold was 1 bar or less in the tall lines, but ranged from 3 to 6 bars in the dwarf genotypes. The results with the ls mutant indicate that GA enhances stem elongation by both decreasing the wall yield threshold and increasing the wall yield coefficient. In the GA-insensitive mutants, Ika and Ikb, the wall yield threshold is substantially elevated. Plants possessing Ika may also possess a reduced wall yield coefficient.     

隐性长穗颈光敏核不育水稻最上节间伸长动态规律的研究

隐性长穗颈性状具有解除雄性不育水稻包颈现象的作用,因此在杂交制种中具有较高的应用价值.以培矮64S为对照,研究了隐性长穗颈光敏核不育水稻长光S最上节间伸长的动态规律,结果表明最上节间伸长的时期为始花前6d至始花当天.始花前1～3d为节间快速伸长期,此时期主要由节间中下部细胞大幅度伸长所致.长光S细胞长度与培矮64S细胞长度差异主要体现在节间快速伸长期.花粉正常发育具有促进节间快速伸长期细胞伸长的作用,隐性长穗颈基因与花粉正常发育在促进节间快速伸长期细胞伸长的作用中有互作增效作用.     

水稻顶节间长度控制基因(EUI)的精细定位

通过对一水稻顶节间特异伸长突变体Mh-1进行经典遗传学和基因定位分析,认为该表型是一个核基因隐性突变所致。利用Mh-1与正常的T65-sd1杂交的F2群体对该位点定位研究分析,发现其与水稻第5条染色体长臂STS标记E30531和CAPS标记C903连锁,遗传距离分别为6．7cM和2．8cM。经进一步发展新的分子标记,将该基因精确定位在0．3cM的区域,为进一步克隆和研究该基因的分子机制奠定基础。     

Artificial Sweeteners Stimulate Adipogenesis and Suppress Lipolysis Independently of Sweet Taste Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors mediate responses to a myriad of ligands, some of which regulate adipocyte differentiation and metabolism. The sweet taste receptors T1R2 and T1R3 are G protein-coupled receptors that function as carbohydrate sensors in taste buds, gut, and pancreas. Here we report that sweet taste receptors T1R2 and T1R3 are expressed throughout adipogenesis and in adipose tissues. Treatment of mouse and human precursor cells with artificial sweeteners, saccharin and acesulfame potassium, enhanced adipogenesis. Saccharin treatment of 3T3-L1 cells and primary mesenchymal stem cells rapidly stimulated phosphorylation of Akt and downstream targets with functions in adipogenesis such as cAMP-response element-binding protein and FOXO1; however, increased expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α was not observed until relatively late in differentiation. Saccharin-stimulated Akt phosphorylation at Thr-308 occurred within 5 min, was phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent, and occurred in the presence of high concentrations of insulin and dexamethasone; phosphorylation of Ser-473 occurred more gradually. Surprisingly, neither saccharin-stimulated adipogenesis nor Thr-308 phosphorylation was dependent on expression of T1R2 and/or T1R3, although Ser-473 phosphorylation was impaired in T1R2/T1R3 double knock-out precursors. In mature adipocytes, artificial sweetener treatment suppressed lipolysis even in the presence of forskolin, and lipolytic responses were correlated with phosphorylation of hormone-sensitive lipase. Suppression of lipolysis by saccharin in adipocytes was also independent of T1R2 and T1R3. These results suggest that some artificial sweeteners have previously uncharacterized metabolic effects on adipocyte differentiation and metabolism and that effects of artificial sweeteners on adipose tissue biology may be largely independent of the classical sweet taste receptors, T1R2 and T1R3.     

Hyphal Elongation Is Regulated Independently of Cell Cycle in Candida albicans

The mechanism for apical growth during hyphal morphogenesis in Candida albicans is unknown. Studies from Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicate that cell morphogenesis may involve cell cycle regulation by cyclin-dependent kinase. To examine whether this is the mechanism for hyphal morphogenesis, the temporal appearance of different spindle pole body and spindle structures, the cell cycle-regulated rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton, and the phosphorylation state of the conserved Tyr19 of Cdc28 during the cell cycle were compared and found to be similar between yeast and serum-induced hyphal apical cells. These data suggest that hyphal elongation is not mediated by altering cell cycle progression or through phosphorylation of Tyr19 of Cdc28. We have also shown that germ tubes can evaginate before spindle pole body duplication, chitin ring formation, and DNA replication. Similarly, tip-associated actin polarization in each hypha occurs before the events of the G(1)/S transition and persists throughout the cell cycle, whereas cell cycle-regulated actin assemblies come and go. We have also shown that cells in phases other than G(1) can be induced to form hyphae. Hyphae induced from G(1) cells have no constrictions, and the first chitin ring is positioned in the germ tube at various distances from the base. Hyphae induced from budded cells have a constriction and a chitin ring at the bud neck, beyond which the hyphae continue to elongate with no further constrictions. Our data suggest that hyphal elongation and cell cycle morphogenesis programs are uncoupled, and each contributes to different aspects of cell morphogenesis.     

Erratum to: Ethylene Controls Adventitious Root Initiation Sites in Arabidopsis Hypocotyls Independently of Strigolactones

Journal of Plant Growth Regulation -     

Contrasting Strategies of Alfalfa Stem Elongation in Response to Fall Dormancy in Early Growth Stage: The Tradeoff between Internode Length and Internode Number

Fall dormancy (FD) in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) can be described using 11 FD ratings, is widely used as an important indicator of stress resistance, productive performance and spring growth. However, the contrasting growth strategies in internode length and internode number in alfalfa cultivars with different FD rating are poorly understood. Here, a growth chamber study was conducted to investigate the effect of FD on plant height, aboveground biomass, internode length, and internode number in alfalfa individuals in the early growth stages. In order to simulate the alfalfa growth environment in the early stage, 11 alfalfa cultivars with FD ratings from one to 11 were chosen and seeded at the greenhouse, and then were transplanted into an artificial growth chamber. The experimental design was a randomized complete block in a split-plot arrangement with three replicates. Plant height, above-ground biomass, internode length, and internode number were measured in early growth stage in all individuals. Our findings showed that plant height and the aboveground biomass of alfalfa did not significantly differ among 11 different FD rated cultivars. Also, internode length and internode number positively affected plant height and the aboveground biomass of alfalfa individuals and the average internode length significantly increased with increasing FD rating. However, internode number tended to sharply decline when the FD rating increased. Moreover, there were no correlations, slightly negative correlations, and strongly negative correlations between internode length and internode number in alfalfa individuals among the three scales, including within-FD ratings, within-FD categories and inter-FD ratings, respectively. Therefore, our results highlighted that contrasting growth strategies in stem elongation were adopted by alfalfa with different FD ratings in the early growth stage. Alfalfa cultivars with a high FD rating have longer internodes, whereas more dormant alfalfa cultivars have a larger number of internodes. There were tradeoffs between internode length and internode number in response to FD in alfalfa, which reflected certain scale-dependence.     

甘蔗节间伸长过程赤霉素生物合成关键基因的表达及相关植物激素动态变化

以甘蔗(Saccharum officinarum)优良品种桂糖42号(GT42)为研究材料, 分别于未伸长期(9-10叶龄以前) (Ls1)、伸长初期(12-13叶龄) (Ls2)和伸长盛期(15-16叶龄) (Ls3)取甘蔗第2片真叶(自顶部起)对应的节间组织, 测定其赤霉素(GA)、生长素(IAA)、油菜素甾醇(BR)、细胞分裂素(CTK)、乙烯(ETH)和脱落酸(ABA)的含量, 并通过实时荧光定量PCR (qRT-PCR)分析赤霉素合成途径关键基因GA₂₀氧化酶基因(GA20-Oxidase1)、赤霉素受体基因(GID1)和DELLA蛋白编码基因(GAI)的差异表达。结果表明, 在甘蔗伸长期间, GA和IAA含量呈现上升趋势, CTK和ABA含量呈下降趋势, ETH含量先上升后下降, BR含量则变化不明显; GA20-Oxidase1和GID1的表达呈上升趋势, 而GAI的表达则呈下降趋势, 这与相关植物激素的变化基本一致。综上, 甘蔗节间伸长过程主要与GA和IAA相关, 其次为CTK和ABA, 而ETH受到IAA的调控影响节间伸长; 植物激素间通过相互作用调控GA20-Oxidase1、GID1和GAI的表达, 影响GA含量和GA的信号转导过程, 进而影响甘蔗节间的伸长。该研究揭示了甘蔗节间伸长过程中赤霉素生物合成途径和信号转导关键基因的差异表达及植物激素含量的动态变化规律。     

Changes in Endogenous Gibberellin and Auxin Activities during First Internode Elongation in Tulip Flower Stalk

Dark treatment during the most active period of tulip shootgrowth induced rapid elongation of the first internode. Endogenousfree-form gibberellin and diffusible auxin in the first internodeincreased while bound-form gibberellin decreased after the darktreatment. Alternating dark and light treatments at 24-h intervalscaused increases in elongation of the first internode and theamounts of free-form gibberellin and diffusible auxin in thedark but their decreases in the light. TIBA treatment at thefirst node inhibited both the elongation and the increase indiffusible auxin, but did not affect the gibberellin amount.Ancymidol application prior to the dark treatment inhibitedthe increase in both free-form gibberellin and diffusible auxin.Application of gibberellin A₃ increased both elongation of thefirst internode and the amount of diffusible auxin. It alsocaused recovery from ancymidol-mediated reduction in elongationand diffusible auxin content. Dark-induced elongation of thefirst internode was inhibited when all organs above the firstinternode were excised, but endogenous free-form gibberellinincreased and bound-form gibberellin decreased. After excision,elongation of the first internode occurred only when both GA₃and IAA were applied exogenously, or when IAA was applied withdark treatment. These results indicate that dark-induced elongationof the first internode of tulip is promoted by auxin, whichis transported from the upper organs into the first internodedue to stimulation from the dark-induced increase in free-formgibberellin. Free- and bound-form gibberellins changed complementarilywith the dark and light treatments. An interconversion systembetween the two forms in the first internode and its dependenceon light conditions are also discussed. (Received June 23, 1984; Accepted March 5, 1985)     

Elongation of the First Internode of the Pea Seedling during Etiolation : Interaction of Environment and Genotype

In the present study, 40 lines of peas, Pisum sativum L., from the Weibullsholm collection were examined for elongation response of the first internode to growth in soil, sand, or in darkness in air. The results obtained establish that appearance of the first (lowest) node of the epicotyl at the surface of soil was usual in only a few of the lines tested (L25, L1088, L1570). By contrast, appearance of the first node at the surface of sand as a result of enhancement of first internode extension occurred in 80% of the lines tested. In many lines, extension in sand or soil was more than in darkness in air, a surprising observation given that the known response of the pea epicotyl to pressure is to produce the extension inhibitor, ethylene. Results of two crosses, one of tall×dwarf and one of tall×tall, point to the conclusion that the Le/le locus exercises only partial control over first internode extension and that other, as yet unknown, loci are implicated.     

Distribution of Glycosidases and Acid Invertase Activities in Relation to Elongation Growth in Pearl Millet Internode

The mean cell length along a differentiating internode and alliedchanges in the activities of ß-glucosidase, - andß-galactosidase. -mannosidase and acid invertase,together with the contents of reducing and non-reducing sugars,were examined in pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum L. Leekecv. BJ-104). The specific activities of cytoplasmic -mannosidase,wall ß-glucosidase, and cytoplasmic and wall acidinvertase showed close relationships with the rate of cell elongation.The linear regressions of the rate of cell elongation, and thespecific activities of wall ß-glucosidase and cytoplasmicand wall invertase showed significant positive correlations(P<0·05), whereas cytoplasmic -mannosidase was negativelycorrelated (P<0·01). The results are discussed in the light of cell wall looseningand the provision of carbon substrates for cell elongation. Key words: Glycosidases, acid invertase, sugars, cell elongation, Pennisetum americanum L., Leeke     

Phosphatidylserine Synthase Controls Cell Elongation Especially in the Uppermost Internode in Rice by Regulation of Exocytosis

The uppermost internode is one of the fastest elongating organs in rice, and is expected to require an adequate supply of cell-wall materials and enzymes to the cell surface to enhance mechanical strength. Although it has been reported that the phenotype of shortened uppermost internode 1 (sui1) is caused by mutations in PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE SYNTHASE (OsPSS), the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here we show that the OsPSS-1, as a gene expressed predominantly in elongating cells, regulates post-Golgi vesicle secretion to intercellular spaces. Mutation of OsPSS-1 leads to compromised delivery of CESA4 and secGFP towards the cell surface, resulting in weakened intercellular adhesion and disorganized cell arrangement in parenchyma. The phenotype of sui1-4 is caused largely by the reduction in cellulose contents in the whole plant and detrimental delivery of pectins in the uppermost internode. We found that OsPSS-1 and its potential product PS (phosphatidylserine) localized to organelles associated with exocytosis. These results together suggest that OsPSS-1 plays a potential role in mediating cell expansion by regulating secretion of cell wall components.     

甘蔗节间伸长过程赤霉素生物合成关键基因的表达及相关植物激素动态变化

以甘蔗(Saccharum officinarum)优良品种桂糖42号(GT42)为研究材料, 分别于未伸长期(9-10叶龄以前) (Ls1)、伸长初期(12-13叶龄) (Ls2)和伸长盛期(15-16叶龄) (Ls3)取甘蔗第2片真叶(自顶部起)对应的节间组织, 测定其赤霉素(GA)、生长素(IAA)、油菜素甾醇(BR)、细胞分裂素(CTK)、乙烯(ETH)和脱落酸(ABA)的含量, 并通过实时荧光定量PCR (qRT-PCR)分析赤霉素合成途径关键基因GA₂₀氧化酶基因(GA20-Oxidase1)、赤霉素受体基因(GID1)和DELLA蛋白编码基因(GAI)的差异表达。结果表明, 在甘蔗伸长期间, GA和IAA含量呈现上升趋势, CTK和ABA含量呈下降趋势, ETH含量先上升后下降, BR含量则变化不明显; GA20-Oxidase1和GID1的表达呈上升趋势, 而GAI的表达则呈下降趋势, 这与相关植物激素的变化基本一致。综上, 甘蔗节间伸长过程主要与GA和IAA相关, 其次为CTK和ABA, 而ETH受到IAA的调控影响节间伸长; 植物激素间通过相互作用调控GA20-Oxidase1、GID1和GAI的表达, 影响GA含量和GA的信号转导过程, 进而影响甘蔗节间的伸长。该研究揭示了甘蔗节间伸长过程中赤霉素生物合成途径和信号转导关键基因的差异表达及植物激素含量的动态变化规律。     

Gibberellins in Relation to Flowering and Stem Elongation in the Long Day Plant Silene armeria

Two long days induced some flowering and 4 or more long days caused 100% flowering in Silene armeria. On long days microscopically detectable flower primordia were first seen after 6 days, which is at least 1 day before the start of stem elongation. Both gibberellin A₃ and A₇ caused flowering on short days, but the results were variable and flowering was never 100%. Three different gibberellins were detected in Silene extracts. The pattern of gibberellins extracted from plants on short and long days was qualitatively the same, but on long days gibberellin content was up to 100% higher than on short days. Only small amounts of diffusible gibberellins were obtained from Silene shoot tips (including very young leaves) on short days. However, on long days the diffusible gibberellins increased by as much as 10-fold after 4 to 6 long days but then declined somewhat after 10 long days. The gibberellins extracted from the shoot tips at the completion of the diffusion period also increased under long days, although the increase was not as large as for the diffusible gibberellins. An A₅-like gibberellin present in extracts was not detected in diffusates.     

Fine Mapping and in silico Isolation of the EUI1 Gene Controlling Upper Internode Elongation in Rice

Upper internode elongation in rice is an important agronomic trait. Well-known mutants with an elongated uppermost internode (eui) are important germplasms for developing unsheathed-panicle male-sterile lines in hybrid rice breeding. We finely mapped the eui1 gene and identified its candidate gene using in silico analysis based on previous research work and rice genomic sequence data. The rice eui1 gene was mapped to two overlapping BAC clones, OSJNBa0095J22 and OSJNBb0099O15, between the markers AC40 and AC46, that were 0.64 cM apart and spanned approximately 152 kb. A simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker AC41 that cosegregated with eui1 was located in an intron of a putative cytochrome P450-related gene. In silico analysis suggested that this encoded the cytochrome CYP714D1. Allelic sequencing confirmed that EUI1 corresponded to this P450 gene. A gamma ray-induced eui1 mutant carried a deletion in exon II of the EUI1 gene, and resulted in a frame-shift deletion that produced a truncated polypeptide. We conclude that the EUI1 gene controlling the upper internode elongation in rice is 9804 bp long, and comprises two exons and one intron. The length of the cDNA is 1931 bp containing a 1734 bp ORF, a 110 bp 5′-UTR and a 87 bp 3′-UTR. The ORF encodes an unknown 577 amino acid functional protein, that appears to be a member of the cytochrome P450 family. Hongli Ma, Shubiao Zhang: These authors contributed equally to this work