Ethology, Natural History, the Life Sciences, and the Problem of Place

Investigators of animal behavior since the eighteenth century have sought to make their work integral to the enterprises of natural history and/or the life sciences. In their efforts to do so, they have frequently based their claims of authority on the advantages offered by the special places where they have conducted their research. The zoo, the laboratory, and the field have been major settings for animal behavior studies. The issue of the relative advantages of these different sites has been a persistent one in the history of animal behavior studies up to and including the work of the ethologists of the twentieth century. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Synthesis,Characterization, and Evaluation of Five Coordinated Copper(II) Complexes as Antibacterial,Artificial Nuclease,and Sod Mimics

The copper(II) complexes with ciprofloxacin (CFLH), levofloxacin (LFLH), norfloxacin (NFLH), and neutral bidentate ligands have been synthesized and characterized. The complexes have been evaluated for their antibacterial activity against selective species. Complexes have been also checked for their interacting behavior with DNA, and were found to have two different modes of interaction, classical and partial intercalation. Tested complexes were found to be better antioxidants with their IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.51 to 0.97 μM.     

Tour of Truffles: Aromas,Aphrodisiacs, Adaptogens,and More

Truffles are the fruiting bodies of ascomycete fungi that form underground. Truffles are globally valued, culturally celebrated as aphrodisiacs, and highly sought-after delicacies in the culinary world. For centuries, naturalists have speculated about their mode of formation, and in cultures surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, many species have been prized as a delectable food source. Truffle fruiting bodies form underground and emit a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Truffle volatiles are believed to have evolved to attract animals that disperse their spores. The main VOCs identified from truffles include sulfur compounds, such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS); in addition, 1-octen-3-ol and 2-methyl-1-propanol have been found in most truffle species. Humans use pigs and dogs trained to detect truffle VOCs in order to find these prized subterranean macrofungi. Truffles have pharmacological potential, but until more reliable cultivation methods become available their high price means they are unlikely to see widespread use as medicinals.     

Metal-based new sulfonamides: Design, synthesis, antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic properties

Cobalt(II), copper(II), nickel(II) and zinc(II) metal complexes with 5-chlorosalicyladehyde derived Schiff base sulfonamides have been synthesized and characterized. Structure and bonding nature of all the synthesized compounds have been deduced from physical, analytical, and spectral (IR, (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, Mass, electronic) data. An octahedral geometry has been proposed for all the metal complexes. The ligands and their metal complexes have been screened for their in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic properties and results are reported.     

Spider silks: recombinant synthesis,assembly, spinning,and engineering of synthetic proteins

Since thousands of years humans have utilized insect silks for their own benefit and comfort. The most famous example is the use of reeled silkworm silk from Bombyx mori to produce textiles. In contrast, despite the more promising properties of their silk, spiders have not been domesticated for large-scale or even industrial applications, since farming the spiders is not commercially viable due to their highly territorial and cannibalistic nature. Before spider silks can be copied or mimicked, not only the sequence of the underlying proteins but also their functions have to be resolved. Several attempts to recombinantly produce spider silks or spider silk mimics in various expression hosts have been reported previously. A new protein engineering approach, which combines synthetic repetitive silk sequences with authentic silk domains, reveals proteins that closely resemble silk proteins and that can be produced at high yields, which provides a basis for cost-efficient large scale production of spider silk-like proteins.     

Interleukin-1, characterization of the molecule, functional activity, and clinical implications.

Hematopoiesis is regulated by a number of growth factors, of which colony-stimulating factors (CSF) have been exclusively defined according to the cell type they grow in vitro in colony assays. A number of cytokines, including interleukin-1 (IL-1), which have been characterized to exhibit multiple activities, are also involved in the control of growth and differentiation of hematopoietic cells. Some CSFs and related cytokines have already been introduced into clinical evaluation. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the IL-1 molecules, their moleculargenetic, and protein features as well as their in vitro and in vivo actions which justify their development as therapeutic agents.     

Metal-based new sulfonamides: Design,synthesis, antibacterial,antifungal, and cytotoxic properties

Cobalt(II), copper(II), nickel(II) and zinc(II) metal complexes with 5-chlorosalicyladehyde derived Schiff base sulfonamides have been synthesized and characterized. Structure and bonding nature of all the synthesized compounds have been deduced from physical, analytical, and spectral (IR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, Mass, electronic) data. An octahedral geometry has been proposed for all the metal complexes. The ligands and their metal complexes have been screened for their in vitro antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic properties and results are reported.     

Gene variants, insulin resistance, and dyslipidaemia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Both insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia are determined by genetic and environmental factors. Depending on their expression and their function, gene variants (mutations, polymorphisms) can primarily regulate either insulin action or dyslipidaemia. The purpose of this review is to give some examples from recent studies on gene variants regulating primarily insulin signalling or lipoprotein metabolism. RECENT FINDINGS: Common polymorphisms in the PC-1, insulin receptor substrate 1 and 2, and PPAR-gamma 2 genes have been linked to insulin resistance and dyslipidaemia, although the results have not been consistent. However, the Pro12Pro genotype of the PPAR-gamma 2 gene has been consistently associated with insulin resistance and the risk of type 2 diabetes. Promoter polymorphisms in the hepatic lipase gene, the 54Thr allele of the fatty acid binding protein 2 gene, and genes regulating LDL particle size have been associated with lipid metabolism, but on the other hand their association with insulin resistance is not consistent. SUMMARY: Although results have not always been consistent, gene variants affecting primary insulin action or dyslipidaemia, and particularly their interaction with the environment, are important modulators of glucose and lipoprotein metabolism.     

Fishing,thieving, witchcraft: apprehension and mistrust in maritime West Africa

This article explores the ‘apprehension’ that permeates life in coastal Sierra Leone as fisherfolk struggle to navigate a precarious economy of overfished waters and overstrained relationships. In a context of deepening uncertainty, social vigilance has come to be regarded as a key survival skill. At sea, even as fishermen strain their senses for evidence of shoaling fish, they remain equally vigilant to rival crews, who may seek to deceive them in their competition for the same depleted resource. When crews return home with empty nets, again, exchange partners regard them with suspicion, watchful for clues that they could have sold their catch covertly in another coastal town. When businesses founder or savings evaporate, people are quick to assume their fortunes must have been invisibly robbed ‘in a witch way’ by one of their neighbours. And yet, despite the deep mistrust and apprehension through which people regard their social world, moral discourses about this supposedly rampant trickery are nuanced. Despair at believing themselves to have been grifted in some unseen way is often tempered by a weary empathy for their antagonists’ poverty, and even grudging respect for their skills of dissimulation.     

Immunohistochemical expression of p53, Bcl-2, COX-2, C-erb-B2, EPO-R, beta-catenin, and E-cadherin in non tumoral gastric mucous membrane

Different authors have investigated the immunohistochemical expression of some proteins in the adenocarcinoma of the stomach, including cell cycle regulators proteins like p53 and Bcl-2; growth factors (c-erb-B2 and EPO-R); angiogenesis-related markers such as COX-2 and cellular adhesion molecules (beta-catenin and E-cadherin). While these proteins have been studied in gastric adenocarcinoma, their immunophenotyping in non tumoral gastric mucous membrane remains unexplored. In the present study, we investigated the expression, function and behavior of these proteins in normal gastric mucous membrane to contribute to gain further knowledge on the significance of their loss or overexpression in malignant gastric tumors.     

Semantics, Inflammation, Cytokines and Common Sense

Semantic evaluation of some of the terms we regularly employ—inflammation, anti-inflammatory, pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory drugs, cytokines, homeostasis and stress—raises concerns about their precise meanings and about their mechanistic implications. Semantic imprecision may have undesirable conceptual consequences.     

Immune defence,extra-pair paternity,and sexual selection in birds

Secondary sexual characters have been suggested to reliably reflect the ability of individuals to resist debilitating parasites, and females may gain direct or indirect fitness benefits from preferring the most extravagantly ornamented males. Extra-pair paternity provides an estimate of an important component of sexual selection in birds. Species with a high frequency of extra-pair paternity have a variance in realized reproductive success that is greater than the variance in apparent reproductive success, and extra-pair copulations and hence extra-pair paternity by females are often directly associated with the expression of male secondary sexual characters. If sexually dichromatic species have experienced a long period of antagonistic coevolution with their parasites, such species should have evolved larger immune defence organs than sexually monochromatic species. Bird species with sexual dichromatism had larger spleens for their body size than monochromatic species in a comparative analysis. Furthermore, species with a high frequency of extra-pair paternity were sexually dichromatic and had large spleens for their body size. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that females of dichromatic bird species seek extra-pair copulations to obtain indirect fitness benefits in terms of superior resistance of their offspring to virulent parasites.     

Iron, infection, and neoplasia

In nearly all forms of life, the number and diversity of enzymes that contain iron or that depend on the presence of this metal for activity are impressive. Not surprisingly, chemical mechanisms have been evolved by many organisms that permit them to solubilize and acquire iron while at the same time depriving their competitors or their pathogens of this element. Proteins such as transferrin and lactoferrin that are employed by vertebrate hosts for iron transport and acquisition can, to some extent, withhold the metal from the siderophores of invading bacteria and fungi. Attempts also are made by animal hosts to withhold iron from protozoa and neoplastic cells. Unfortunately, pathogenic microorganisms have developed a variety of counter measures that are especially dangerous in hosts stressed by iron overload in specific fluids, tissues, or cells. In recent years, however, a number of possible methods and agents for strengthening iron-withholding defense have become apparent. Nearly 3,000 papers on various aspects of iron withholding are contained in the 18-year Medline Database and numerous reviews have been published since 1966. The present paper will focus on developments that have been reported within the past 2 1/2 years.     

Mushrooms, tumors, and immunity.

Medicinal properties have been attributed to mushrooms for thousands of years. Mushroom extracts are widely sold as nutritional supplements and touted as beneficial for health. Yet, there has not been a critical review attempting to integrate their nutraceutical potential with basic science. Relatively few studies are available on the biologic effects of mushroom consumption, and those have been performed exclusively in murine models. In this paper, we review existing data on the mechanism of whole mushrooms and isolated mushroom compounds, in particular (1-->3)-beta-D-glucans, and the means by which they modulate the immune system and potentially exert tumor-inhibitory effects. We believe that the antitumor mechanisms of several species of whole mushrooms as well as of polysaccharides isolated from Lentinus edodes, Schizophyllum commune, Grifola frondosa, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum are mediated largely by T cells and macrophages. Despite the structural and functional similarities of these glucans, they differ in their effectiveness against specific tumors and in their ability to elicit various cellular responses, particularly cytokine expression and production. Unfortunately, our data base on the involvement of these important mediators is still rather limited, as are studies concerning the molecular mechanisms of the interactions of glucans with their target cells. As long as it remains unclear what receptors are involved in, and what downstream events are triggered by, the binding of these glucans to their target cells, it will be difficult to make further progress in understanding not only their antitumor mechanisms but also their other biological activities.     

Catalytic RNA,ribozyme, and its applications in synthetic biology

Ribozymes are functional RNA molecules that can catalyze biochemical reactions. Since the discovery of the first catalytic RNA, various functional ribozymes (e.g., self-cleaving ribozymes, splicing ribozymes, RNase P, etc.) have been uncovered, and their structures and mechanisms have been identified. Ribozymes have the advantage of possessing features of “RNA” molecules; hence, they are highly applicable for manipulating various biological systems. To fully employ ribozymes in a broad range of biological applications in synthetic biology, a variety of ribozymes have been developed and engineered. Here, we summarize the main features of ribozymes and the methods used for engineering their functions. We also describe the past and recent efforts towards exploiting ribozymes for effective and novel applications in synthetic biology. Based on studies on their significance in biological applications till date, ribozymes are expected to advance technologies in artificial biological systems.     

Blood,sweat, and tears: a review of the hematophagous,sudophagous, and lachryphagous Lepidoptera

Although adult Lepidoptera are not often considered medically relevant, some butterflies and moths are notorious for their consumption of mammalian body fluids. These Lepidoptera can be blood‐feeding (hematophagous), tear‐feeding (lachryphagous), or sweat‐feeding (we use the term “sudophagous”). Blood‐feeding Lepidoptera have been observed piercing the skin of their hosts during feeding, while tear‐feeding Lepidoptera have been observed frequenting the eyes of hosts in order to directly obtain lachrymal fluid. These behaviors have negative human health implications and some potential for disease transmission. In this study, articles concerning feeding behavior of blood, sweat, and tear‐feeding Lepidoptera were reviewed, with emphasis on correlations between morphological characters and feeding behaviors. Harmful effects and vector potential of these Lepidoptera are presented and discussed.     

Frequency of Discrimination,Harassment, and Violence in Lesbian,Gay Men,and Bisexual in Italy

Background

This cross-sectional study assessed the frequency of discrimination, harassment, and violence and the associated factors among a random sample of 1000 lesbian, gay men, and bisexual women and men recruited from randomly selected public venues in Italy.

Methods

A face-to-face interview sought information about: socio-demographics, frequency of discrimination, verbal harassment, and physical and sexual violence because of their sexual orientation, and their fear of suffering each types of victimization.

Results

In the whole sample, 28.3% and 11.9% self-reported at least one episode of victimization because of the sexual orientation in their lifetime and in the last year. Those unmarried, compared to the others, and with a college degree or higher, compared to less educated respondents, were more likely to have experienced an episode of victimization in their lifetime. Lesbians, compared to bisexual, had almost twice the odds of experiencing an episode of victimization. The most commonly reported experiences across the lifetime were verbal harassment, discrimination, and physical or sexual violence. Among those who had experienced one episode of victimization in their lifetime, 42.1% self-reported one episode in the last year. Perceived fear of suffering violence because of their sexual orientation, measured on a 10-point Likert scale with a higher score indicative of greater fear, ranges from 5.7 for verbal harassment to 6.4 for discrimination. Participants were more likely to have fear of suffering victimization because of their sexual orientation if they were female (compared to male), lesbian and gay men (compared to bisexual women and men), unmarried (compared to the others), and if they have already suffered an episode of victimization (compared to those who have not suffered an episode).

Conclusions

The study provides important insights into the violence experiences of lesbian, gay men, and bisexual women and men and the results may serve for improving policy initiatives to reduce such episodes.     

Biology, ecology, and biotechnological applications of anaerobic bacteria adapted to environmental stresses in temperature, pH, salinity, or substrates.

Anaerobic bacteria include diverse species that can grow at environmental extremes of temperature, pH, salinity, substrate toxicity, or available free energy. The first evolved archaebacterial and eubacterial species appear to have been anaerobes adapted to high temperatures. Thermoanaerobes and their stable enzymes have served as model systems for basic and applied studies of microbial cellulose and starch degradation, methanogenesis, ethanologenesis, acetogenesis, autotrophic CO2 fixation, saccharidases, hydrogenases, and alcohol dehydrogenases. Anaerobes, unlike aerobes, appear to have evolved more energy-conserving mechanisms for physiological adaptation to environmental stresses such as novel enzyme activities and stabilities and novel membrane lipid compositions and functions. Anaerobic syntrophs do not have similar aerobic bacterial counterparts. The metabolic end products of syntrophs are potent thermodynamic inhibitors of energy conservation mechanisms, and they require coordinated consumption by a second partner organism for species growth. Anaerobes adapted to environmental stresses and their enzymes have biotechnological applications in organic waste treatment systems and chemical and fuel production systems based on biomass-derived substrates or syngas. These kinds of anaerobes have only recently been examined by biologists, and considerably more study is required before they are fully appreciated by science and technology.     

Viral Detection: Past,Present, and Future

Viruses are essentially composed of a nucleic acid (segmented or not, DNA, or RNA) and a protein coat. Despite their simplicity, these small pathogens are responsible for significant economic and humanitarian losses that have had dramatic consequences in the course of human history. Since their discovery, scientists have developed different strategies to efficiently detect viruses, using all possible viral features. Viruses shape, proteins, and nucleic acid are used in viral detection. In this review, the development of these techniques, especially for plant and mammalian viruses, their strengths and weaknesses as well as the latest cutting‐edge technologies that may be playing important roles in the years to come are described.     

Medicated Chewing Gums (MCGs): Composition,Production, and Mechanical Testing

Medicated chewing gums (MCGs) represent a unique platform for drug delivery. They have been defined as solid single-dose preparations, which may contain more than one active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) with base consisting primarily of gum that has to be chewed for a certain period of time. They mainly contain a tasteless masticatory gum base as the core with other minor nonmasticatory ingredients, such as flavors and sweeteners. Despite their advantages in drug delivery, MCGs remain a niche product due to the complexity of their formulation, lack of acceptable testing methods, and intricacy of their manufacturing. Few studies have been reported on their use, and most of the information on their composition and production could be found in patent search. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of gum composition, manufacturing process, and characterization. Due to the scarcity of studies concerning the evaluation of the mechanical properties of MCGs, greater emphasis was placed on the available performance tests and procedures for the estimation of their mechanical and textural properties. While very few tests have been recommended by the official pharmacopeias, several tests have been suggested for assessing the mechanical properties of MCGs in vitro. Properties, such as chewiness, elasticity, and firmness, of chewing gums during mastication are imperative quality attributes that have been found to strongly correlate with gum composition and mouth feel.