Concentration of 17 trace elements in serum and whole blood of plains viscachas (Lagostomus maximus) by ICP-MS, their reference ranges, and their relation to cataract

The reference ranges of the trace elements Al, As, Be, B, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Li, Rb, Se, Sr, and Zn were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in sera of a group of free-ranging plains viscachas of the pampa grasslands of Argentina. The values were compared with those of a small group of captive plains viscachas of the Zurich Zoo with diabetes and bilateral cataracts. In addition, a method for digestion of whole-blood samples is described for the trace element determination. Significant differences in the concentration of trace elements in the two groups of animals are discussed. No correlation was found between the levels of selenium and of other trace elements compared to the formation of cataracts.     

Mass ratios of magnesium to calcium and phosphorus in the arteries of Japanese and Thai

To elucidate quantitative changes of Ca, P, and Mg in the arteries with aging, the authors investigated changes of the mass ratios of Mg to Ca and P in the arteries of Japanese and Thai by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. The arteries of Japanese that were used were the thoracic and abdominal aortas, coronary, common iliac, internal iliac, external iliac, and femoral arteries, in which very high accumulations of Ca and P occurred in old age. The arteries of Thai that were used were the abdominal aorta, ramifying site of the abdominal aorta, coronary, common iliac, internal iliac, and external iliac arteries. It was found that there were extremely significant correlations both between Ca and Mg contents and between P and Mg contents in all of the arteries of the Japanese and the Thai. With regard to the mass ratio, the mass ratios of Mg to Ca ranged from 1.5% to 2.1% in the six arteries of the Japanese, except for the thoracic aorta at 3.1%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis, being similar to each other. In the arteries of the Thai, the mass ratios of Mg to Ca ranged from 1.9% to 3.0%, except for the coronary artery at 0.5%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. The mass ratios of Mg to P ranged from 2.5% to 2.7% in the six arteries of the Japanese, except for the coronary artery at 1.8%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. With regard to the arteries of the Thai, the mass ratios of Mg to P ranged from 1.9% to 3.3%, except for the coronary artery at 0.7%, at an advanced stage of atherosclerosis. These results revealed that both the mass ratios of Mg to Ca and Mg to P were almost similar among the arteries of Japanese and Thai, except for the coronary arteries. Therefore, these results suggested that the inorganic deposits in the coronary arteries of Japanese and Thai were similar to those in the intimal tunica of the thoracic aorta, whereas in the other arteries, they were similar to those in the middle tunica of the thoracic aorta.     

From the creation of the Veterinary Schools to the evolution of the notion of contagion in the 19th and 20th centuries

The creation of the Veterinary Schools in the 18th century would reveal a plethora of scientists, some of whom would be the precursors of Pasteur, some rivals, others followers collaborators or friends of the Master. Among the precursors let us name Chabbert, Huzard, Girard, Delafond, Renault, Toussaint, Galtier ; among the rivals: Chauveau, Arloing, Cornevin and Thomas; among the followers, collaborators or friends of Pasteur: Bouley, at first a resolute spontaneist, then the most fervent in defense of Pasteur (President of the Academy of Medicine and of the Academy of Sciences) and Nocard, Director of the School in Alfort, an important collaborator of Pasteur. Later, there was Leclainche, who created the International Office of Epizootics, and who was President of the Academy of Sciences; Guérin, who with Calmette developed the BCG vaccination; Ramon, the father of anatoxins (vaccines against diphtheria, and tetanus, combined vaccines, adjuvants to immunity). Thus, the creation of the Veterinary Schools contributed not only to the evolution of the notion of contagion, to the amelioration of animal health and the economics of agricultural production, but also to serious advances in human care, and to the protection of public health.     

Comparative morphology and evolutionary pathways of the mouthparts in spore-feeding Staphylinoidea (Coleoptera)

This study surveys the external morphology of the mouthparts in the guild of spore‐feeders among the coleopterous superfamily Staphylinoidea, evaluating the influence of different phylogenetic and ecological starting points on the formation of their mouthparts. Our emphasis is on a scanning electron microscope analysis (SEM) of the involved trophic structures in spore‐feeding larvae and adults of the Ptiliidae, Leiodidae and Staphylinidae, describing the fine structure of their main functional elements. Functionally, mouthpart structures resemble brushes, brooms, combs, rakes, rasps, excavators, knives, thorns, cram‐brushes, bristle troughs, blocks and differently structured grinding surfaces. Their different involvement in the various aspects of the feeding process (i.e. food gathering, transporting, channelling and grinding) is deduced from our SEM analyses plus direct video observations. We infer five different patterns of food transport and processing, discriminating adults of ptiliids, leiodids plus staphylinids (excluding some aleocharines), several aleocharine staphylinids, and the larvae of leiodids and staphylinids. The structural diversity of the mouthparts increases in the order from (1) Ptiliidae, (2) Leiodidae towards (3) Staphylinidae, reflecting the increasing systematic and ecological diversity of these groups. Comparisons with non‐spore‐feeders show that among major lineages of staphylinoids, shifts from general microphagy to sporophagy are not necessarily constrained by, nor strongly reflected in, mouthpart morphology. Nevertheless, in several of these lineages the organs of food intake and grinding have experienced particular fine‐structural modifications, which have undergone convergent evolution, probably in response to specialized mycophagy such as spore‐feeding. These modifications involve advanced galeal rakes, galeal or lacinial ‘spore brushes’ with arrays of stout bristles, reinforced obliquely ventrad orientated prosthecal lobes and the differentiations of the molar grinding surfaces into stout teeth or tubercles. In addition, several staphylinids of the tachyporine and oxyteline groups with reduced mandibular molae have evolved secondary trituration surfaces, which in some aleocharines are paralleled by considerable re‐constructions of the labium–hypopharynx.     

略论棕榈科与新分出的省藤科的系统分类、演化、区系地理及主要的经济用途

棕榈科原省藤亚科因其子房壁及外果皮被倒生、螺旋状排列的鳞片所覆盖,而区别于其他亚科,因而独立分出成一新科--省藤科。作者讨论了棕榈科的祖先种可能在石炭纪时,自原始裸子植物开以顿目在分化、衍生出苏铁目祖先种的进化干上,于白垩纪时分化出的一个分支。在棕榈科的祖先种出现不久后,在其进化的分支上,于白垩纪后期又分化出一旁支,成为棕榈科的姊妹科--省藤科的祖先种。从两祖先种分别再分化、衍生出现今分布地球上该二科的属与种。两科、尤其前者是被子植物、尤其是单子叶植物中最原始的类群之一。作者还提出棕榈科象牙椰亚科与贝叶棕亚科是该科最原始或较原始的两类群;槟榔亚科和腊材榈亚科是较进化的两类群;而水椰亚科祖先种可能源于象牙椰亚科的祖先种,但又演化为该科最进化与特化的类群。省藤科省藤亚科略比鳞果榈亚科原始。作者讨论了两科为泛热带分布的科,指出两科的"现代分布区"在南北两半球热带地区,少数种还延伸分布到两半球暖亚热带、甚至达中亚热带地区,分布区边缘最北达日本中部、中国长江流域及黄河下游的南部,美国加利佛尼亚州与佛罗里达州和地中海北部;最南达智利中部和新西兰南部;而"现代分布中心"在热带与暖亚热带的亚洲,中、南美洲,大洋洲及非洲的东、南、西部;但分布区的"密集中心"则在热带亚洲、热带中及南美洲、南太平洋群岛及非洲东南部。作者还介绍了近50年我国南方引种驯化成功的两科植物近400种(见^*图谱),其中少数为耐寒的种类,有的种已引种到长江流域或更北的地区。引种的大部分种都有其重要的经济用途,包括:1. 食用,如淀粉和树液可制"西米"或制糖,酿酒、醋或作饮料;果或种子榨油,供食用或工业用;某些种的嫩芽作蔬菜,甚至种子代咖啡饮用;2. 药用,有消炎、止血、活血、驱虫、抗癌等用;3. 建筑、工艺与日用品,包括不少种的树干供建普通房子、桥梁、小船;少数种可提制工业用蜡;许多种的纤维制高级缆绳和编织品;还制工艺品与日用品等;4. 代表热带景观的园林工程、绿化及美化环境的观赏树和人行道树及建造园林景观生态类型的树种等。     

The peregrination of Alcide d’Orbigny's Foraminifera Collection at the Museum of Natural History,Paris: From the creation of a Palaeontology chair to the advent of Micropalaeontology

Alcide d’Orbigny made his mark in the history of French Palaeontology by becoming, in 1853, the first holder of the chair of Palaeontology at the Museum of Natural History, Paris. His work on foraminifera made him one of the pioneers of Micropalaeontology. Today, his original collection of foraminifera, bought by the Museum after his death, represents one of the most prestigious collections of the institution. However, for more than a century, it had been relegated to the reserves and to the good will of a few enthusiasts, while the priority of research study was given to the large vertebrate fossils. It survived the conflicts that affected the Palaeontology department, and was moved in response to construction works, wars and natural accidents such as the great flood of 1910. These different events, combined with inappropriate storage conditions, probably caused the fragility of the specimens. In order to better understand this phenomenon, known as Byne's decay, research has been undertaken to reconstruct the various storage points of the collection from its acquisition to the present day. This article aims to demonstrate the close link between the Foraminifera Collection and the history of the chair of Palaeontology, through evidence drawn from the archives of the Palaeontology laboratory and the Museum of Natural History.     

Epididymal compounds and their influence on the metabolism and survival of spermatozoa

Epididymal fluid, which is derived from testicular fluid, contains several unusual compounds. Little information is available on the composition of the testicular fluid of primates, but the fluid of the ram, bull, boar, and rat contains high concentrations of inositol and certain amino acids. Analyses have been made of epididymal fluid collected from the cauda epididymis of the Rhesus monkey and several nonprimate species (e.g., ram, bull, dog, stallion, rabbit, guinea pig, rat, and hamster), but similar information on the human is lacking. Cauda epididymal fluid appears to be similar in composition from one mammalian species to another. However, the epididymal plasma differs considerably from blood, lymph, and other extracellular fluids. The environment of spermatozoa in the epididymis is, therefore, highly specialized, and presumably in some way contributes to the prolonged survival of spermatozoa in this organ, and provides substrates for the metabolism of the spermatozoa. The chief characteristics of the cauda epididymal plasma are the low concentration of inorganic ions and the high levels of several unusual organic constituents namely, glycerylphosphorylcholine, carnitine, sialic acid, amino acids, glycosidases, and phosphatases. At least one antifertility compound, namely, orally administered α-chlorohydrin, appears to be concentrated in the epididymis. Studies on laboratory animals, domestic species, and man, suggest that it inhibits enzymes of the glycyolytic pathway in spermatozoa, and this may be the basis for its antifertility activity.     

Floral elaiophore structure in four representatives of the Ornithocephalus clade (Orchidaceae: Oncidiinae)

Background and Aims A significant number of species assigned to the Neotropical orchid sub-tribe Oncidiinae reward insect pollinators with oil produced in floral glands termed elaiophores. The latter may be glabrous (epithelial elaiophores) or hirsute (trichomal elaiophores). Although the detailed anatomy and ultrastructure of epithelial elaiophores have been studied for a number of genera, such as Oncidium Sw., Gomesa R. Br. and Trichocentrum Poepp. & Endl., hitherto, trichomal elaiophores have been investigated only for a single species of Oncidiinae, Ornithocephalus ciliatus Lindl. Furthermore, this is the only representative of the Ornithocephalus clade to be investigated to date. Here, an examination is made of the elaiophore anatomy and ultrastructure of a further four species currently assigned to this clade (Ornithocephalus gladiatus Hook., Phymatidium falcifolium Lindl., Zygostates grandiflora (Lindl.) Mansf. and Zygostates lunata Lindl.) and the results compared with those obtained for other Oncidiinae. Methods Elaiophore structure was examined for all species at three stages of flower development: closed bud, first day of anthesis and final stage of anthesis, using light microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and histochemistry. Key Results Elaiophores of O. gladiatus occur upon the lateral lobes of the labellum and display characters intermediate between those of typical epithelial and trichomal elaiophores, in that they are largely glabrous, consisting mainly of cuboidal epidermal cells, but bear short, unicellular hairs proximally. By contrast, the elaiophores of all the other species investigated occur on the callus and are of the trichomal type. In P. falcifolium, these unicellular hairs are capitate. In all species, oil secretion commenced at the closed floral bud stage. Ultrastructurally, the mainly trichomal elaiophores of the four representatives of the Ornithocephalus clade closely resembled the epithelial elaiophores of other Oncidiinae, in that their cells displayed an organelle complement typical of lipid-secreting cells. However, in some taxa, a number of noteworthy characters were present. For example, the elaiophore cuticle of O. gladiatus and P. falcifolium was bi-layered, the outer layer being lamellate, the inner reticulate. The cuticle of Z. grandiflora and Z. lunata was also lamellate, but here, a reticulate layer was absent. Accumulation of secreted oil resulted in the localized distension of the cuticle. Cuticular cracks and pores, however, were absent from all species. The walls of the secretory cells of Z. grandiflora were also atypical in that they had short protuberances or ingrowths, and contained cavities which are thought to be involved in the secretory process. Conclusions Of the species investigated, most displayed similar anatomical organization, their trichomal elaiophores occurring on the labellar callus. They, thus, differ from many other members of the Oncidiinae, where epithelial elaiophores are found either on the callus, or on the lateral lobes of the labellum. However, ultrastructurally, all elaiophores, whether those of representatives of the Ornithocephalus clade, or those of other oil-secreting Oncidiinae, possessed a similar complement of organelles, regardless of whether the elaiophores were trichomal or epithelial. In view of the latter, and the similar chemical composition of oils derived from all Oncidiinae investigated to date, it is probable that position and type of elaiophore, and possibly the structure of the overlying cuticle, play an important role in pollinator selection in these oil-secreting orchids.     

On the influence of fishes on the evolution of benthic crustaceans

Though the interweavement of trophic chains in marine ecosystems of the past cannot be reconstructed, as the abundance, nutrition, reproductive rates and other aspects of the biology of fossil species are not known, it is possible to correlate trends in the evolution of single groups of animals, in the presented case the Crustacea, with the influence of other evolving organisms. The evolution of carnivorous, buoyant, well swimming modern fishes probably induced profound changes in marine ecosystems and influenced the evolution of crustaceans. Indications for these interactions are a. the absence or rare occurrence of defenseless archaic crustaceans in habitats, which are populated by teleostean fishes and the survival of some of these forms in refuges like caves and subterranean waters, and b. the reduction of the pleon in the course of the mesozoic evolution of the Decapoda, which occurs parallel to the radiation of the Teleostei, namely in the period between the early Jurassic and the Tertiary. The shortening of the pleon is interreted as a consequence of the stepwise change from a hyperbenthic to a more benthic Iife-stJe and the abandonment of the caridoid escape reaction. Other adaptations are also construed as results from the selective pressure produced by predators. Extant crustaceans which are able to coexist with fishes, among the macrozoobenthos especially the Decapoda and Peracarida, have a variety of protective adaptations, which help to reduce predation.     

Embryology of the Theaceae - anther and ovule development of Camellia, Franklinia, and Schima

The anther and ovule development of Camellia, Franklinia, and Schima (Theaceae, Camellioideae) were observed. The three genera share the following embryological traits: anther wall formation of basic type, tapetum of glandular type, walls of endothecial cells with secondary thickening, and production of pseudopollen grains in connective, which are dispersed into pollen sacs at anthesis, ovule bitegmic-tenuinucellate, micropyle formed by inner integument alone, hypostase present, and both integuments generally five-to-seven cell layered. One autapomorphy of the Camellioideae found in the present study is the production of pseudopollen. The three genera surveyed differ with respect to the number of middle layers in the anther, the presence or absence of stomata on connective epidermis, morphology of pseudopollen, type of embryo sac formation, form of ovule, ovular vasculature, and the proliferation of ovular epidermis, etc. Among the three genera, Franklinia and Schima are presumed to be closer embryologically, and Schima possesses more numerous specialized features.     

Tissue specific protochlorophyll(ide) forms in dark-forced shoots of grapevine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis>L.)

Cuttings of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Chardonnay) were dark-forced at least three weeks. Pigment contents, 77 K fluorescence emission, excitation spectra of the leaves, petioles, stems, transmission electron micrographs of the etioplasts from leaves, the chlorenchyma tissues of the stems were analysed. The dark-grown leaves, stems contained 8 to 10, 3 to 5 μg/g fresh weight protochlorophyllide, its esters, respectively. HPLC analysis showed that the molar ratio of the unesterified, esterified pigments was 7:3 in the shoot developed in darkness. The dark-forced leaves contained carotenoids identified as: neoxanthin, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, lutein, β-carotene. Detailed analyses of the fluorescence spectra proved that all tissues of the dark-forced shoots had protochlorophyllide or protochlorophyll forms with emission maxima at 628, 636, 644, 655, 669 nm. The 628, 636 nm emitting forms were present in all parts of the dark-forced shoot, but dominated in the stems, which may indicate an organ specificity of the etioplast development. Variations in the distribution of the pigment forms were even found in the different tissues of the stem. The subepidermal layers were more abundant in the 655 nm form than the parenchyma cells of the inner part of the cortex, the pith. In the latter cells, the plastid differentiation stopped in intermediary stages between proplastids, etioplasts. The plastids in the subepidermal layers had developed prolamellar body structures, which were similar to those of etiolated leaves. The results highlight the importance of organ-, tissue specificity of plastid differentiation for chlorophyll biosynthesis, greening of different plant organs. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Meristic and morphometric variations in fluvial Japanese charr between river systems and among tributaries of a river system

Meristic and morphometric characters of local populations of fluvial Japanese charr, Salvelinus leucomaenis, which have been isolated above dams and a waterfall, were compared between river systems (Naka and Tone rivers, central Japan) and among the tributaries of the Naka River (Ashinagasawa, Akasawa, Ushirosawa and Moto-okashirasawa streams). Between the river systems, there was a significant difference in the mean number of dorsal fin rays, pyloric caeca, white spots under the lateral line and the proportion of the diameter of the white spots to the diameter of the pupil, respectively. On the other hand, among the tributaries within a river system, a significant difference was occurred in the mean number of anal fin rays, pored scales on the lateral line, gill rakers, vertebrae, pyloric caeca, white spots under the lateral line, white spots on the surface of the gill covers and the proportion of the diameter of the white spots to the diameter of the pupil, respectively. A dendrogram based on data of the meristic and morphometric characters showed that the population of the Tone River was included within the variation detected among the tributary populations of the Naka River. Meristic and morphometric characters of Japanese charr varied not only between river systems but also among tributaries within a river system.     

Sugars in crop plants

We review current knowledge of the most abundant sugars, sucrose, maltose, glucose and fructose, in the world's major crop plants. The sucrose‐accumulating crops, sugar beet and sugar cane, are included, but the main focus of the review is potato and the major cereal crops. The production of sucrose in photosynthesis and the inter‐relationships of sucrose, glucose, fructose and other metabolites in primary carbon metabolism are described, as well as the synthesis of starch, fructan and cell wall polysaccharides and the breakdown of starch to produce maltose. The importance of sugars as hormone‐like signalling molecules is discussed, including the role of another sugar, trehalose, and the trehalose biosynthetic pathway. The Maillard reaction, which occurs between reducing sugars and amino acids during thermal processing, is described because of its importance for colour and flavour in cooked foods. This reaction also leads to the formation of potentially harmful compounds, such as acrylamide, and is attracting increasing attention as food producers and regulators seek to reduce the levels of acrylamide in cooked food. Genetic and environmental factors affecting sugar concentrations are described.     

The morphology and evolutionary significance of the ciliary fields and musculature among marine bryozoan larvae

Despite the embryological and anatomical disparities present among lophotrochozoan phyla, there are morphological similarities in the cellular arrangements of ciliated cells used for propulsion among the nonfeeding larval forms of kamptozoans, nemerteans, annelids, mollusks, and bryozoans. Evaluating whether these similarities are the result of convergent selective pressures or a shared (deep) evolutionary history is hindered by the paucity of detailed cellular information from multiple systematic groups from lesser-known, and perhaps, basal evolutionary phyla such as the Bryozoa. Here, I compare the ciliary fields and musculature among the major morphological grades of marine bryozoan larvae using light microscopy, SEM, and confocal imaging techniques. Sampling effort focused on six species from systematic groups with few published accounts, but an additional four well-known species were also reevaluated. Review of the main larval types among species of bryozoans and these new data show that, within select systematic groups of marine bryozoans, there is some conservation of the cellular arrangement of ciliary fields and larval musculature. However, there is much more morphological diversity in these structures than previously documented, especially among nonfeeding ctenostome larval types. This structural and functional diversification reflects species differences in the orientation of the apical disc during swimming and crawling behaviors, modification of the presumptive juvenile tissues, elongation of larval forms in the aboral-oral axis, maximizing the surface area of cell types with propulsive cilia, and the simplification of ciliary fields and musculature within particular lineages due to evolutionary loss. Considering the embryological origins and functional plasticity of ciliated cells within bryozoan larvae, it is probable that the morphological similarities shared between the coronal cells of bryozoan larvae and the prototrochal cells of trochozoans are the result of convergent functional solutions to swimming in the plankton. However, this does not rule out cell specification pathways shared by more closely related spiralian phyla. Overall, among the morphological grades of larval bryozoans, the structural variation and arrangement of the main cell groups responsible for ciliary propulsion have been evolutionarily decoupled from the more divergent modifications of larval musculature. The structure of larval ciliary fields reflects the functional demands of swimming and substrate exploration behaviors before metamorphosis, but this is in contrast to the morphology of larval musculature and presumptive juvenile tissues that are linked to macroevolutionary differences in morphogenetic movements during metamorphosis.     

人类口唇部形态变异的研究进展

口唇部是主要的面部形态区域之一,具有重要的生理功能。嘴唇保护口腔免受外部物质的渗透,维持口腔内部的湿度和温度,帮助咀嚼,同时也是外科美容整形手术中的主要部位之一,且在法医物证研究中唇纹也具有重要的鉴别价值。目前关于口唇部形态的研究主要包括以下几个方面：口唇部形态变异的性别、年龄、族群差异;影响口唇部形态变异的因素,如遗传基因、饮食结构、牙齿及颌骨形态和呼吸方式等;口唇部形态研究在医学、个人身份识别及法医刑侦领域的相关应用等。国内口唇部形态研究相对较少,尤其缺乏较为系统的口唇部形态生长发育及变异研究。本文通过梳理和归纳国内外相关文献的研究数据和结论,对口唇部形态相关研究作简要概述,并对国内口唇部生长发育及形态变异研究作了简要回顾和展望。     

The digestive enzymes and acidity of the pellets regurgitated by raptors

The activity of six digestive enzymes (amylase, chitinase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase A, pepsin) was examined in the water-soluble contents of the pellets egested by ten species of raptors (kestrel, saker, lanner, goshawk, barn owl, tawny owl, little owl, long-eared owl, African great-owl and steppe eagle). All the enzymes studied were present in the pellets from these birds, except for chitinase which was not detected in the pellets of the goshawk and the steppe eagle, and amylase and carboxypeptidase absent in the material egested by the lanner. The origin of the enzymes studied was examined. Pancreatic enzymes, which are present in the pellets, arise from a reflux of intestinal fluid into the stomach. The importance of this phenomenon is discussed. The acidity of the pellets was measured. Relations existing between the type of food, characteristics of the pellet and the digestive process in raptors are analysed. The evolutionary advantage of pellet egestion is discussed.     

Species composition and pattern of fish distribution in Siberia

At the end of the first half of the 20th century, 61 species and subspecies of fish, including one invader (bleak Alburnus alburnus) and 17 species—endemics of Baikal—were reported for Siberia (Berg, 1933, 1949). At the present time, in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs of Siberia, 96 fish species and subspecies are described, of which 80 are aboriginal and 16 are invaders; 33 species are endemics of Baikal. Each landscapegeographic zone of Siberia has its specific ichthyofauna: in rivers and lakes of the south of Siberia, species of boreal piedmont complex dominate; in water bodies of the steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, and southern parts of the forest-steppe zone boreal plain dominates; in the zone of tundra, arctic freshwater dominates; and in Baikal, the most part (35) of species belongs to the Baikal autochtonous complex. Most researchers, as before, distinguish in Siberia two ichthyogeographic sites—West Siberian and East Siberian—that enter the Arctic Province of the Circumpolar subregion of the Holarctic region. Baikal is considered in the rank of the suboblast of the Holarctic.     

Aspects of the functional morphology in the cranial and cervical skeleton of the sabre-toothed cat Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) (Felidae, Machairodontinae) from the Late Miocene of Spain: implications for the origins of the machairodont killing bite

The skull and cervical anatomy of the sabre-toothed felid Paramachairodus ogygia (Kaup, 1832) is described in this paper, with special attention paid to its functional morphology. Because of the scarcity of fossil remains, the anatomy of this felid has been very poorly known. However, the recently discovered Miocene carnivore trap of Batallones-1, near Madrid, Spain, has yielded almost complete skeletons of this animal, which is now one of the best known machairodontines. Consequently, the machairodont adaptations of this primitive sabre-toothed felid can be assessed for the first time. Some characters, such as the morphology of the mastoid area, reveal an intermediate state between that of felines and machairodontines, while others, such as the flattened upper canines and verticalized mandibular symphysis, show clear machairodont affinities.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 144 , 363−377.