Isolation and Characterization of a Cytokinin Up-Regulated Gene from Tobacco Mesophyll Protoplasts

We have isolated a cytokinin up-regulated cDNA clone, H13, froman early stage of cultured tobacco mesophyll protoplasts bya differential display method. The expression of this gene wasspecifically induced by natural and synthetic cytokinins includingN-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N'-phenylurea (4PU30), a diphenylurea-typecytokinin, although the simultaneous presence of auxin was alsorequired. It seems that the preceding treatment of the tobaccomesophyll protoplasts by auxin is necessary for the gene torespond to cytokinin. The addition of a cytokinin antagonist,compound 182, which suppressed the induction of cell divisionin tobacco mesophyll protoplasts, completely abolished the expressionof this gene. Though the predicted gene product of H13 did notsuggest us any sequences of defined functions, two domains ofthe predicted sequence had significant homology to several reportedsequences in the data base. The gene product of H13 is proposedto have a role in regenerating cell wall in cultured protoplasts,since a cDNA clone E6, from cotton fiber cells, which has themost closely related structure to H13, has been isolated fromcells which showed active cellulose synthesis. This suppositionis supported by the evidence that in the absence of cytokinin,cell wall regeneration was significantly suppressed, resultingin failure of the induction of cell division. Thus, the geneproduct of H13 is supposed to have a role in regenerating cellwalls and facilitating the progression of the cell cycle, resultingin the sustained cell division of tobacco mesophyll protoplasts. ¹These authors are equally contributed to this work.     

Transient expression of chimaeric genes in dividing and non-dividing cereal protoplasts after PEG-induced DNA uptake

Transient expression of chimaeric genes (neomycin phosphotransferase fused to four different promoters) was detected in suspension culture derived protoplasts of maize, barley and rice, in mesophyll protoplasts of maize, rice, rye, and root protoplasts of maize. The introduction and expression of foreign genes could be performed with both dividing and non-dividing protoplasts by applying the PEG transformation method. The significance of this method for the functional analysis of genes was demonstrated by the differential expression of a regulated gene in protoplasts of different tissues in agreement with its expression in the donor tissue.Abreviations PEG polyethylene glycol - NPT neomycin phosphotransferase - 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - caseinh. caseinhydrolysate     

The serine/arginine-rich protein family in rice plays important roles in constitutive and alternative splicing of pre-mRNA

Ser/Arg-rich (SR) proteins play important roles in the constitutive and alternative splicing of pre-mRNA. We isolated 20 rice (Oryza sativa) genes encoding SR proteins, of which six contain plant-specific characteristics. To determine whether SR proteins modulate splicing efficiency and alternative splicing of pre-mRNA in rice, we used transient assays in rice protoplasts by cotransformation of SR protein genes with the rice Waxy(b) (Wx(b))-beta-glucuronidase fusion gene. The results showed that plant-specific RSp29 and RSZp23, an SR protein homologous to human 9G8, enhanced splicing and altered the alternative 5' splice sites of Wx(b) intron 1. The resulting splicing pattern was unique to each SR protein; RSp29 stimulated splicing at the distal site, and RSZp23 enhanced splicing at the proximal site. Results of domain-swapping experiments between plant-specific RSp29 and SCL26, which is a homolog of human SC35, showed the importance of RNA recognition motif 1 and the Arg/Ser-rich (RS) domain for the enhancement of splicing efficiencies. Overexpression of plant-specific RSZ36 and SRp33b, a homolog of human ASF/SF2, in transgenic rice changed the alternative splicing patterns of their own pre-mRNAs and those of other SR proteins. These results show that SR proteins play important roles in constitutive and alternative splicing of rice pre-mRNA.     

Binding of phytochrome to plasma membranes in vitro

Nicotiana tabacum (cv. Xanthi), N. plumbaginifolia Viviani, N. sylvestris Speg. and Comes and Petunia axillaris × ( P. axillaris × P. hybrida ) (cv. Mitchell) mesophyll protoplast-derived cells were able to grow at low densities in chemically-defined media. Protoplasts of different origins (mesophyll, epidermis, pith, suspension culture) also gave rise to protoplast-derived cells that were able to grow at low densities. When auxin requirements at low densities were compared for different sources of auxins, IAA was found to be efficient in the same range of concentrations as NAA. This was unexpected since tobacco mesophyll protoplasts cannot be induced to divide when plated at high density in the presence of IAA. Optimal 2,4-D concentrations for low density growth were higher and clearly pH-dependent. On the contrary, picloram induced low density growth over a wide range of concentrations suggesting a distinct mechanism of action. These results confirm and extend previous observation on the tobacco mesophyll protoplast and show that the low-density growth technique has a potential use for the study of the action of phytohormones.     

Six novel genes necessary for pre-mRNA splicing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

We have identified six new genes whose products are necessary for the splicing of nuclear pre-mRNA in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A collection of 426 temperature-sensitive yeast strains was generated by EMS mutagenesis. These mutants were screened for pre-mRNA splicing defects by an RNA gel blot assay, using the intron- containing CRY1 and ACT1 genes as hybridization probes. We identified 20 temperature-sensitive mutants defective in pre-mRNA splicing. Twelve appear to be allelic to the previously identified prp2, prp3, prp6, prp16/prp23, prp18, prp19 or prp26 mutations that cause defects in spliceosome assembly or the first or second step of splicing. One is allelic to SNR14 encoding U4 snRNA. Six new complementation groups, prp29-prp34, were identified. Each of these mutants accumulates unspliced pre-mRNA at 37 degrees C and thus is blocked in spliceosome assembly or early steps of pre-mRNA splicing before the first cleavage and ligation reaction. The prp29 mutation is suppressed by multicopy PRP2 and displays incomplete patterns of complementation with prp2 alleles, suggesting that the PRP29 gene product may interact with that of PRP2. There are now at least 42 different gene products, including the five spliceosomal snRNAs and 37 different proteins that are necessary for pre-mRNA splicing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, the number of yeast genes identifiable by this approach has not yet been exhausted.     

Heat-inducible expression of FLP gene in maize cells

The soybean heat-shock gene promoter ( Gmhsp 17.5-E ) has been used to direct expression of gusA and FLP genes in maize cells. At inducible temperatures, in transient expression assays, gusA gene expression controlled by the heat-shock promoter is about 10-fold higher than the expression directed by the CaMV 35S promoter. The Gmhsp 17.5-E promoter preserves its regulatory functions in heterologous maize cells after random integration into genomic DNA.
Heat-shock inducible expression of the FLP gene was investigated by co-transformation of the FLP expression vector (pHsFLP) and a recombination test vector (pUFNeo-FmG) into maize protoplasts. Co-transformed protoplasts were incubated at 42°C for 2 h. This treatment induced recombination of 20–25% of the available FRT sites in transient assays. As a result of heat-shock treatment of stably co-transformed maize cells, activation of gusA gene expression and an associated decrease or elimination of NPT-II activity in transgenic maize lines was observed. Molecular evidence was obtained of the expected DNA excision process catalyzed by the FLP protein in maize transgenic cells. Thus, the experiments presented in this paper indicate that the FLP protein can recognize and subsequently recombine the FRT target sites that had integrated into plant genomic DNA, and that regulated expression of the FLP gene is possible in maize cells using the soybean heat-shock promoter.     

转录辅调节因子在剪接过程中的作用

细胞通过基因表达调控来应对外界刺激,其中对基因转录起始和pre-mRNA剪接的调控是基因表达调控的重要环节。越来越多的实验显示基因转录和pre-mRNA剪接这两个过程在时空上密切相关。基因转录能调节剪接模式的选择性,反之剪接过程也影响基因转录。近年来研究发现转录辅调节因子在联系转录和剪接过程中扮演着重要角色。转录辅调节因子对基因表达的调控不仅在于影响转录产物的量,还可以调控pre-mRNA的选择性剪接并产生不同的剪接体,从而翻译出具有不同生物学功能的蛋白质。本文主要阐述了基因转录与剪接之间的关系以及它们之间相互作用的机制,有利于更深入理解基因表达调控的过程。     

Catalase Is Differentially Expressed in Dividing and Nondividing Protoplasts

Based on our previous results that peroxidase is induced in dividing tobacco protoplasts but it is not expressed in the nondividing grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) protoplasts during culture (C.I. Siminis, A.K. Kanellis, K.A. Roubelakis-Angelakis [1993] Physiol Plant 87: 263-270), we further tested the hypothesis that oxidative stress may be implicated in the recalcitrance of plant protoplasts. The expression of catalase, a major defense enzyme against cell oxidation, was studied during isolation and culture of mesophyll protoplasts from the recalcitrant grapevine and regenerating tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.). Incubation of tobacco leaf strips with cell wall-degrading enzymes resulted in a burst of catalase activity and an increase in its immunoreactive protein; in contrast, no such increases were found in grapevine. The cathodic and anodic catalase isoforms consisted exclusively of subunits [alpha] and [beta], respectively, in tobacco, and of subunits [beta] and [alpha], respectively, in grapevine. The catalase specific activity increased only in grapevine protoplasts during culture. The ratio of the enzymatic activities to the catalase immunoreactive protein declined in dividing tobacco protoplasts and remained fairly constant in nondividing tobacco and grapevine protoplasts during culture. Also, in dividing tobacco protoplasts the de novo accumulation of the catalase [beta] subunit gave rise to the acidic isoenzymes, whereas in nondividing tobacco and grapevine protoplasts, after 8 d in culture, only the basic isoenzymes remained due to de novo accumulation of the [alpha] subunit. The pattern of catalase expression in proliferating tobacco leaf cells during callogenesis was similar to that in dividing protoplasts. The different responses of catalase expression in dividing and nondividing tobacco and grapevine mesophyll protoplasts may indicate a specificity of catalase related to induction of totipotency.     

A 2,4-D-inducible glutathione S-transferase from soybean (Glycine max). Purification, characterisation and induction

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs; EC 2.5.1.18) have recently been proposed to form one large group among the auxin-induced proteins. However. the properties and regulation of such auxin-responsive GSTs in the plant still await detailed investigation. In this study, a 2,4-dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)-inducible GST isozyme from soybean ( Glycine max [L.] Merr. cv. Williams) was purified to near homogeneity by anion-exchange and affinity chromatography on S-hexylglutathione agarose. The native enzyme had a molecular mass of 49 kDa, as determined by gel filtration, and consisted of 26-kDa subunits. The purified GST conjugated glutathione to 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and to the herbicide metolachlor, but not to the other GST substrates atrazine. fluorodifen or trans-cinnamic acid. The N-termmal amino acid sequence shared significant homology with the deduced polypeptide sequences of two 2,4-D-inducible genes from tobacco, par A and CNT107 . The levels of the 26-kDa GST subunit protein in soybean hypocotyls were analysed by immunoblotting. At micromolar concentrations, 2,4-D induced a transient increase in net accumulation of GST, whereas indole-3-acetic acid or I-naphthaleneacetic acid did not increase the GST levels. Known inhibitors of polar auxin transport, including 2.3.5-tri-iodobenzoic acid. N-I-naphthylphthalamic acid and analogues thereof, differed widely in their ability to elicit GST protein accumulation. It is concluded that the induction of soybean GST by 2,4-D and by some of the auxin transport inhibitors is not related to auxin activity or to changes in the endogenous auxin levels.     

紫云英叶片及叶肉原生质体的培养

本工作研究了豆科植物紫云英的叶片及叶肉原生质体的培养。叶片培养实验表明,诱导愈伤组织的最适培养基为MS加1.0-2.0毫克/升2,4-D和0.25毫克/升KT;诱导根分化需加1.0—5.0毫克/升NAA和0.5毫克/升BA;而苗分化则以0—0.5毫克/升IAA和0.5毫克/升BA为好。高浓度的NAA有利于根分化而抑制茎芽形成;高浓度的IAA对根和芽分化都有抑制作用。叶肉原生质体分离和培养试验表明,紫云英叶肉原生质体的释放及其培养活力受叶龄、植株生理状态和酶浓度的影响。叶肉原生质体在改良的KM8P培养基中能分裂。用改良KM8细胞培养基定期稀释,可使分裂持续进行而得到细胞团。BA和2,4-D为诱导紫云英叶肉原生质体分裂所必需。其最佳组合激素为BA 0.21毫克/升和2,4-D 1.13毫克/升。葡萄糖作为渗透压稳定剂时,其浓度明显影响原生质体的存活率。弱光条件下培养比黑暗培养有利于叶肉原生质体分裂。由叶肉原生质体形成的愈伤组织能形成瘤状结构和根。     

Molecular weight distribution of cellulose in primary cell walls

The distribution pattern of the degree of polymerization (DP) of cellulose present in the cell walls of mesophyll- and suspension-cultured cells of tobacco was compared to that of newly synthesized ¹⁴C-labeled cellulose from regenerating tobacco protoplasts and suspension-cultured cells. The cellulose was nitrated, and, after fractionation according to differences in solubility in acetone/water, the DP pattern of labeled or unlabeled cellulose nitrate was determined by viscosity measurements. A low (DP<500) and high DP-fraction (DP>2500) of cellulose were predominant in the cell walls of protoplasts, suspension — cultured cells, and mesophyll cells. The average DP of the high molecular weight fraction of cellulose in the cell walls of mesophyll was higher (DP4,000) than in protoplasts or suspension — cultured cells (DP 2,500-3,000). In all cell walls tested, minor amounts of cellulose molecules with a broad spectrum of a medium DP were present. Pulse — chase experiments with either protoplasts or suspension —cultured cells showed that a large proportion of the low and medium DP-cellulose are a separate class of structural components of the cellulose network. The results are discussed in relation to the organization of cellulose in the primary cell wall.Abbreviations DP degree of polymerisation - 2,4-D 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid - IAA indole-3-acetic acid     

High-speed electro-fusion and electro-transfection of plant protoplasts by a continuous flow electro-manipulator

A continuous flow electro-manipulator available both for mass production of fused and of transfected plant protoplasts was devised using a flow chamber with gold-coated glass panel electrodes. Up to 100 ml of protoplasts suspension were treated within 20 min at the rate of approximately 1×10⁶ protoplasts / min. The yield of diheterokaryons between tobacco mesophyll and carrot root protoplasts reached approximately 10 % of total protoplasts by flow electro-fusion. More than 95 % of tobacco and cowpea mesophyll protoplasts became infected with tobacco mosaic virus RNA by flow electro-transfection.     

玉米核糖体失活蛋白基因z108在烟草原生质体中的转化及其表达

利用与根癌农杆菌共培养的方法将玉米核糖体失活蛋白基因z108及其融合基因GUS导入烟草叶肉原生质体细胞。试验结果表明,烟草叶片在含有1.0%纤维素酶和0.5%离析酶的裂解液中,以0.5M甘露醇、5000.0mg/LCaCl2为渗透压调节剂,25℃保温12-14h,可获得纯化的原生质体细胞;纯化的叶肉原生质体细胞与根癌农杆菌菌株pCam1301/91-108共培养30min,经25mg/L潮霉素筛选,转化率可达17.84%。转化体细胞经X-Gluc染色、PCR和RT-PCR检测证明玉米核糖体失活蛋白基因z108已整合到烟草原生质体细胞的核基因组中并获得表达。     

Identification of NAA-l-aspartate amide as the major metabolite synthesized by tobacco mesophyll protoplasts incubated in the presence of the auxin analogue NAA

A major metabolite of naphthalene 1-acetic acid (NAA) is rapidly accumulated by tobacco mesophyll protoplasts induced to divide by this growth regulator. A comparison of the natural product with various chemically synthesized NAA-amino acid conjugates was performed. The metabolite was identified as NAA-aspartate amide by negative CIMS. The biological activity of NAA-aspartate on protoplasts was further studied. The significance of the accumulation of this metabolite in dividing protoplasts is discussed.