Improvement of degraded physical properties of a saline-sodic soil by reclamation with kallar grass (Leptochloa fusca)

A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of growing salt tolerant plants to improve the physical characteristics of a saline-sodic soil. Kallar grass [Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth], a species tolerant to salinity, sodicity and alkalinity, was irrigated for five years with poor quality ground water (EC = 0.14 S m^–1, SAR_adj=19.3, RSC = 9.7 meq L^–1). The soil physical properties of plant available water, saturated hydraulic conductivity, structural stability, bulk density and porosity were determined at the end of each year. The growth of kallar grass for three years significantly improved the physical properties of the soil and these were maintained with further growth of grass up to five years. Kallar grass significantly increased plant available water with time (r=0.97^**). The available water was highly correlated (r=0.92^**) with increases in soil organic matter content, porosity (r=0.99^**) and other physical properties. Soil hydraulic conductivity increased substantially with time from 0.035 to 55.6 mm d^–1 in the topsoil (0–20 cm) in five years and was significantly correlated with porosity, water retention, structural stability and organic matter content of soil. The soil structural stability index improved significantly from 32 to 151 with kallar grass and showed greater increases in the surface soil than at depth. The cropping of kallar grass resulted in a linear increase of soil organic matter content (r=0.92^**) which improved porosity and other soil physical properties (r0.82^*). This study confirmed that kallar grass is effective for rehabilitation and restoration of soil fertility in saline-sodic areas on a sustainable basis.     

火烧对黔中喀斯特山地马尾松林土壤理化性质的影响

在黔中喀斯特山地马尾松人工次生林内取样分析火烧和对照样地间土壤理化指标的变化,研究了火烧对林地土壤理化性质的影响。结果表明马尾松火烧林地表层土壤毛管孔隙度和总孔隙度升高、最大持水量和最小持水量增加,土壤密度和非毛管孔隙度降低、土壤质量含水量和体积含水量减少;土壤有机质、全N量、全P量、全K量,水解N量、有效P量、速效K量、交换性盐基量和pH值增大,阳离子交换量降低。林火对马尾松林地土壤主要理化指标影响的趋势为或表层土壤影响率大于剖面影响率、或表层土壤影响率小于剖面影响率,不同指标在土壤剖面的变化趋势或增加、或降低,对数或幂函数拟合曲线均达相关显著性水平。火烧和对照样地间的表层土壤理化指标变化主要反映了林火影响,近岩层土壤理化指标变化主要是成土母质在空间上的分异,也受生物的影响。乔木层植株死亡率同表层土壤最大持水量、最小持水量、有机质量和全N量的正相关性显著,同土壤密度的负相关性显著;灌木层植株死亡率同表层土壤密度正相关性显著,同毛管孔隙度、总孔隙度、质量含水量、最大持水量、最小持水量、有机质量、全N量、全P量和速效K量的负相关性达显著或极显著水平;灌木层生物损失量同表层土壤密度和有机质量正相关显著,同速效K量的负相关性显著,枯物层生物损失量同pH值的正相关性显著。火烧马尾松林分平均胸径同表层土壤密度正相关性显著,同毛管孔隙度、总孔隙度、质量含水量、最大持水量、最小持水量和有机质量的负相关性显著。     

人工油松林恢复过程中土壤理化性质及有机碳含量的变化特征

采用时空替代法,选取岷江上游大沟流域内不同恢复时期(12、18、25、35a)的人工油松林为研究对象,研究了植被恢复过程中土壤理化性质及有机碳含量的变化特征,同时探讨了它们之间的相互关系.研究结果表明沿恢复梯度,土壤质量得到了改善,主要表现为土壤粘粒含量、比表面积、有机质含量显著增加,土壤粉粒含量和pH值则显著下降.土壤有机质与土壤粘粒和比表面积呈显著正相关,与土壤容重呈显著负相关.此外,土壤有机碳含量沿恢复梯度显著增加,0-50 cm内土壤有机碳含量从5.59 kg/m2增加到12.64 kg/m2,土壤年平均固碳速率为0.31 kg/m2.     

Stable Nitrogen and Carbon Pools in Grassland Soils of Variable Texture and Carbon Content

Nitrogen (N) inputs to many terrestrial ecosystems are increasing, and most of these inputs are sequestered in soil organic matter within 1–3 years. Rapid (minutes to days) immobilization focused previous N retention research on actively cycling plant, microbial, and inorganic N pools. However, most ecosystem N resides in soil organic matter that is not rapidly cycled. This large, stable soil N pool may be an important sink for elevated N inputs. In this study, we measured the capacity of grassland soils to retain ¹⁵N in a pool that was not mineralized by microorganisms during 1-year laboratory incubations (called “the stable pool”). We added two levels (2.5 and 50 g N m⁻²) of ¹⁵NH₄ ⁺ tracer to 60 field plots on coarse- and fine-textured soils along a soil carbon (C) gradient from Texas to Montana, USA. We hypothesized that stable tracer ¹⁵N retention and stable bulk soil (native + tracer) N pools would be positively correlated with soil clay and C content and stable soil C pools (C not respired during the incubation). Two growing seasons after the ¹⁵N addition, soils (0- to 20-cm depth) contained 71% and 26% of the tracer added to low- and high-N treatments, respectively. In both N treatments, 50% of the tracer retained in soil was stable. Total soil C (r ² = 0.72), stable soil C (r ² = 0.68), and soil clay content (r ² = 0.27) were correlated with stable bulk soil N pools, but not with stable ¹⁵N retention. We conclude that on annual time scales, substantial quantities of N are incorporated into stable organic pools that are not readily susceptible to microbial remineralization or subsequent plant uptake, leaching losses, or gaseous losses. Stable N formation may be an important pathway by which rapid soil N immobilization translates into long-term N retention. Received 2 April 2001; accepted 12 November 2001.     

芦芽山典型植被土壤有机碳剖面分布特征及碳储量

摘要: 基于芦芽山沿海拔梯度分布的灌丛草地、针阔混交林、寒温性针叶林和亚高山草甸四类典型植被下土壤剖面实测数据,分析了土壤有机碳的垂直分布特征及其与土壤理化因子的关系。结果表明,各植被类型下土壤剖面上层SOC含量最高,最大值往往出现在10—20 cm层,然后向下逐渐减小。土壤有机质含量由剖面上层最大值向下降低过程中,某深度土壤剖面层段有机质含量急剧减小。亚高山草甸剖面这一深度为20 cm,寒温性针叶林剖面为50 cm,针阔混交林剖面为20 cm,灌丛草地剖面为40 cm。0—10 cm层各植被类型间SOC含量差异不显著;10—20 cm层,亚高山草甸和寒温性针叶林SOC含量显著高于其他类型;20—50 cm层,亚高山草甸SOC含量与灌丛草地接近,显著高于针阔混交林,低于寒温性针叶林。植被类型对有机碳剖面分布影响较大。土壤剖面各层有机碳含量与容重呈显著负相关,与土壤含水量和全氮含量呈显著正相关,与土壤pH值呈弱的负相关,与深层黏粒和粉粒含量正相关,在30—50 cm正相关性显著。逐步回归分析结果表明,亚高山草甸SOC含量与土壤总氮含量、含水量和容重的显著相关,寒温性针叶林SOC含量与全氮含量显著相关,针阔混交林SOC含量则与总氮含量和土壤容重显著相关,而灌丛草地SOC含量与容重显著相关。在20 cm深度,四种植被土壤有机碳密度差异不显著;50 cm深度亚高山草甸、寒温性针叶林土壤有机碳储量显著高于针阔叶混交林和灌丛草地,50 cm深度土壤有机碳储量与海拔高度呈显著线性正相关（R2=0.299,P=0.01）。     

武夷山自然保护区不同海拔甜槠天然林土壤有机碳变化特征及影响因素

为揭示中亚热带常绿阔叶林建群种--甜槠天然林不同海拔土壤有机碳含量垂直分布差异及影响机制,以武夷山自然保护区甜槠天然林单一植被类型为研究对象,在其集中分布的5个海拔梯度（540、700、850、1022、1200 m）范围内设置固定样地,测定每个海拔梯度不同深度土层土壤因子（土壤全氮、全磷、土壤pH值、容重、土壤有机质、粉粒、砂粒、粘粒）、气候因子（土壤温度）、植被因子（细根生物量）及土壤有机碳含量等指标,分析了土壤有机碳沿海拔及垂直土层分布特征,并在主成分分析基础上构建了基于主控因子的线性回归模型。结果表明：（1）同一海拔高度,土壤有机碳含量在土壤垂直剖面分布具有明显的"表聚性"现象;同一土层深度,随着海拔升高,土壤有机碳含量逐渐增加,但增幅随土层深度增加而减小,高海拔地区有助于土壤有机碳的固存;（2）不同土层土壤有机碳含量与海拔、土壤全氮、土壤含水量、土壤粉粒呈极显著正相关（P<0.01）,与土壤温度、土壤容重、土壤粘粒、砂粒呈极显著负相关（P<0.01）;土壤细根生物量、土壤有机质与土壤有机碳含量在土壤表层（0-10、10-20 cm）呈极显著（P<0.01）或显著正相关（P<0.05）;土壤pH值、土壤砂粒与土壤有机碳含量在20-30 cm土层呈显著负相关（P<0.05）,但与其他土层关系不显著（P>0.05）;海拔因素是影响土壤有机碳含量分布的主要因素,其次为土壤因素,植被因素主要影响土壤表层有机碳含量分布。（3）海拔因素能通过影响与土壤有机碳形成和转化的因子及改变土壤有机碳的累积和分解速率,对土壤有机碳的分布产生影响。（4）多元线性回归模型拟合R²高于一元线性回归模型拟合R²,能解释土壤有机碳含量变异的82.1%-98.1%。由此可见,不同环境因子组合可以更好的解释不同土层土壤有机碳含量随海拔梯度的变异。     

Relationship of Soil Properties to Fractionation of Pb and Zn in Soil and Their Uptake into Plantago lanceolata

Soil samples (0 to 5?cm) from 30 locations in the Celje region, Slovenia, an area that has been subjected to severe industrial emissions of Pb and Zn, were analyzed for selected soil properties and subjected to a six-step sequential extraction of Pb and Zn. Phyto-available forms of heavy metals: soluble in soil solution and exchangeable from soil colloids to soil solution together accounted for 0 to 1.68% of Pb and 0 to 40.8% of total soil Zn. Most of the Pb and Zn was found to reside in less labile forms bound to carbonate (2.04 to 43.5% Pb, 3.9 to 35.1% Zn), bound to Fe and Mn oxides (0 to 16.1% Pb, 1.4 to 25.4% Zn), bound to organic matter (35.8 to 71.1% Pb, 14.8 to 56.2% Zn), and in the residual fraction (10.4 to 53.4% Pb, 14.2 to 75.3% Zn). Factor analysis and stepwise multiple regression revealed that the concentration of Pb in the proposed indicator plant, narrow leaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata) did not correlate with the measured soil properties, Pb fractionation in soil, and total soil Pb. Plant uptake of Zn, however, significantly correlated with soil pH and with the share of phyto-available forms of Zn in the soil (R² = 86.9). A statistically significant correlation (P<0.01) was found between the fractions of Pb and Zn carbonates and soil organic matter content (R² = 90.6 and 90.9, respectively); the fraction of Pb bound to organic matter and soil organic matter content (R² = 90.6); the residual fraction of Pb and total Pb content in soil (R² = 95.7); the fraction of Zn bound to Fe an Mn oxides, the fraction of Zn bound to organic matter, the residual fraction of Zn and total Zn content in soil (R² = 75.9, 93.2, and 87.4, respectively). Soil texture, pH, and cation exchange capacity did not affect the relative proportions of Pb and Zn forms in soil.     

Increase in pH stimulates mineralization of ‘native’ organic carbon and nitrogen in naturally salt-affected sandy soils

Large amounts of terrestrial organic C and N reserves lie in salt-affected environments, and their dynamics are not well understood. This study was conducted to investigate how the contents and dynamics of ‘native’ organic C and N in sandy soils under different plant species found in a salt-affected ecosystem were related to salinity and pH. Increasing soil pH was associated with significant decreases in total soil organic C and C/N ratio; particulate (0.05–2 mm) organic C, N and C/N; and the C/N ratio in mineral-associated (<0.05 mm) fraction. In addition, mineral-associated organic C and N significantly increased with an increase in clay content of sandy soils. During 90-day incubation, total CO₂-C production per unit of soil organic C was dependent on pH [CO₂-C production (g kg⁻¹ organic C) = 22.5 pH – 119, R ² = 0.79]. Similarly, increased pH was associated with increased release of mineral N from soils during 10-day incubation. Soil microbial biomass C and N were also positively related to pH. Metabolic quotient increased with an increase in soil pH, suggesting that increasing alkalinity in the salt-affected soil favoured the survival of a bacterial-dominated microbial community with low assimilation efficiency of organic C. As a result, increased CO₂-C and mineral N were produced in alkaline saline soils (pH up to 10.0). This pH-stimulated mineralization of organic C and N mainly occurred in particulate but not in mineral-associated organic matter fractions. Our findings imply that, in addition to decreased plant productivity and the litter input, pH-stimulated mineralization of organic matter would also be responsible for a decreased amount of organic matter in alkaline salt-affected sandy soils.     

贡湖湾退圩还湖区水位高程下植被分布格局与土壤特征

为揭示水陆交错带水位高程下植被分布格局、多样性指数和土壤特征的变化,于2015年10月对贡湖湾湿地北部生态修复区不同水位高程下植物群落组成和土壤特征进行调查,结果表明:整个研究区有165种植物,隶属65科、142属,多为多年生植物且受人为影响严重;随水位高程增加,植物群落R、H、D、J呈现逐渐递增趋势,具体表现为常年水淹区G1季节性水淹区G2水淹区G3;土壤容重及机械组成中粉、黏粒含量随水位高程升高而增加;随土壤营养物渐增其植物群落多样性增加,多样性和优势度指数与土壤全氮(TN和有机质(OM)负相关。OM含量呈"V"型先减后增分布;TN呈逐渐增多的趋势;速效钾(EP)含量无明显波动,约为13.50 mg/kg;有效磷(AP)含量先减少后基本不变;4个多样性指数间正相关;TN与OM显著正相关(R~2=0.533);OM与EP负相关(R~2=-0.144;TN与丰富度、多样性、优势度正相关;AP与4个多样性指数均正相关;pH值与4个多样性指数负相关;回归分析可见,TN和OM是影响植物群落多样性的关键因子。科学的植被管理、全面调控土壤营养盐含量有助于水陆交错带植被恢复。     

Soil water availability for plants as quantified by conventional available water, least limiting water range and integral water capacity

There are different approaches to define the soil available water (SAW) for plants. The objectives of this study are to evaluate the SAW values of 12 arable soils from Hamadan province (western Iran) calculated by plant available water (PAW), least limiting water range (LLWR) and integral water capacity (IWC) approaches and to explore their relations with Dexter’s index of soil physical quality (i.e., S-value). Soil water retention and mechanical resistance were determined on the intact samples which were taken from the 5–10 cm layer. For calculation of LLWR and IWC, the van Genuchten-Mualem model was fitted to the observed soil water retention data. Two matric suctions (h) of 100 and 330 cm were used for the field capacity (FC). There were significant differences (P?<?0.01) between the SAW values calculated by PAW₁₀₀, PAW₃₃₀, LLWR₁₀₀, LLWR₃₃₀ and IWC. The highest (i.e., 0.210 cm³ cm^?3) and the lowest (i.e., 0.129 cm³ cm^?3) means of SAW were calculated for the IWC and LLWR₃₃₀, respectively. The upper limit of LLWR₃₃₀ for all of the soils was h of 330 cm, and that of LLWR₁₀₀ (except for one soil that was air-filled porosity of 0.1 cm³ cm^?3) was h of 100 cm. The lower limit of LLWR₃₃₀ and LLWR₁₀₀ for five soils was h of 15,000 cm and for seven soils was mechanical resistance of 2 MPa. The IWC values were smaller than those of LLWR₁₀₀ for two soils, equal to those of LLWR₁₀₀ for three soils and greater than those of LLWR₁₀₀ for the rest. There is, therefore, a tendency to predict more SAW using the IWC approach than with the LLWR approach. This is due to the chosen critical soil limits and gradual changes of soil limitations vs. water content in the IWC calculation procedure. Significant relationships of SAW with bulk density or relative bulk density were found but not with the clay and organic matter contents. Linear relations between IWC and LLWR₁₀₀ or LLWR₃₃₀ were found as: IWC?=??0.0514 + 1.4438LLWR₁₀₀, R ²?=?0.83; and IWC?=??0.0405 + 2.0465LLWR₃₃₀, R ²?=?0.84, respectively (both significant at P?<?0.01). Significant relationships were obtained between the SAW values and S indicating the suitability of the index S to explain the availability of soil water for plants even when complicated approaches like IWC are considered. Overall, the results demonstrate the importance of the choice of the approach to be used and its critical limits in the estimation of the soil available water to plants.     

玛纳斯河流域扇缘带不同植被类型下土壤物理性质

对生长在玛纳斯河流域扇缘带上的柽柳、盐穗木、白刺、猪毛菜4种植被类型下的土壤物理性质进行了研究.结果表明:在水平方向上,1m剖面内柽柳土壤pH值、全盐含量、土壤容重最小,分别为8.75、0.97g/kg和1.42g/cm3;土壤有机质、含水率、总孔隙度、毛管孔隙度均最大,分别为9.04 g/kg、16.67％、45.57％和36.18％,表明柽柳能够显著降低土壤盐分,改善土壤结构.沿垂直剖面,4种植被类型在表层0-20 cm土壤盐分均达到最高,出现盐分“表聚”现象而形成“盐霜”;随着土层深度增加,含水率和土壤容重均呈显著性升高,土壤有机质、田间持水量、总孔隙度、毛管孔隙度和非毛管孔隙度均呈显著性降低(P＜0.05).相关性分析显示,土壤有机质是引起其他土壤物理性质变化的主要原因.相比空裸地,4种植被覆盖类型1 m剖面内土壤有机质、总孔隙度和毛管孔隙度均呈显著性提高,土壤容重显著性降低,有机质分别提高了162.94％、82.94％、85.59％和27.94％,总孔隙度分别提高了44.90％、20.83％、36.06％和15.80％,毛管孔隙度分别提高了58.27％、30.71％、43.48％和25.72％,土壤容重分别降低了18.86％、10.86％、17.14％和7.43％,表明干旱荒漠区盐碱土上生长的不同盐生植物能够显著改善土壤质量.     

长白山苔原草本植物入侵与土壤环境的关系

在对长白山高山苔原西坡样带内132个样方进行植被调查和土壤取样分析的基础上,应用冗余分析(RDA)和典型相关分析方法,探讨了草本植物入侵苔原带程度与苔原土理化性质及环境之间的关系。研究表明,长白山苔原带西坡草本入侵程度区域差异明显,可分为5个不同的入侵等级;海拔、坡度、全钾含量、粘粒含量、有机质含量等10种土壤环境因子与草本植物入侵程度明显相关。RDA分析表明土壤环境因子能解释93%的植物物种多度信息,影响草本植物入侵的主要土壤因子是有机质含量,粘粒含量和坡度;第一对典型变量说明有机质含量与牛皮杜鹃多度正相关,与大白花地榆多度负相关,粘粒含量则相反;第二对典型变量说明海拔、速效氮含量与笃斯越桔、长白老鹳草多度呈负相关。长白山苔原带西坡草本植物在空间分布上是离散的,呈斑块状。可见,草本植物入侵,对生境是有所选择的。土壤有机质含量与灌木多度呈正相关,说明在草本入侵过程中,土壤有机质含量会减少;或者有机质含量减少的地方,灌木生长退化,草本由此开始侵入定植。     

Soil organic matter dynamics after C3–C4 vegetation change of red soil in Southern, China: Evidence from natural 13C abundance

Soil samples from natural forests and adjacent farmland were analyzed to investigate the dynamics of soil organic matter of red soil in Southern, China. Based on the δ¹³C values and the content of soil organic matter, the data indicated that the turnover of soil organic matter under the virgin forest was slower than that under cultivation. Soil organic matter is fresh in coarse sand and oldest in fine silt and clay. Also, the soil light fraction contained the younger organic matter than soil heavy fraction and bulk soil. Deforestation has accelerated the decomposition rate of soil organic matter and reduced the proportion of active components in SOM and thus soil fertility.     

Dynamics of viable nitrifier community and nutrient availability in dry tropical forest habitat as affected by cultivation and soil texture

Seasonal dynamics of N-mineralization and the size of the viable community of nitrifying bacteria were studied for a forest site and an adjoining cropland site. The forest site was dominated by Boswellia serrata and Acacia catechu in the tree layer, and by Nyctanthes arbortristis and Zizyphus glaberrima in the shrub layer. Crop sequence on the cropland site was Oryza sativa/Lens culinaris. The soil type in both the sites was ultisol (USDA). The cropland soil had significantly higher bulk density, and clay content but lower organic C, total N and total P than forest soil. The soil moisture content, numbers of ammonia-and nitrite oxidizing bacteria and N-mineralization rates were highest in the wet season and lowest in the dry season, while the size of mineral N and P pools showed a reverse trend in both sites. The numbers of free-living cells of ammonia-and nitrite oxidizing bacteria were significantly related with each other as well as with the soil moisture content and N-mineralization rates. In N-mineralization, NO ₃ ^– was the dominating form in the forest site during rainy season, while in other seasons in this site and in all the seasons in the cropland site, NH ₄ ⁺ -N was predominant. The N-mineralization rate and the number of viable nitrifying cells were consistently higher for the forest soil compared to the clay-rich cropland soil. The combination of low soil organic matter and high clay content suppressed the number of free-living cells of nitrifying bacteria and N-mineralization rates in the cropland site.     

Alleviation of Both Water and Nutrient Limitations is Necessary to Accelerate Ecological Restoration of Waste Rock Tips

Hard rock quarries are commonly located close to national parks and special areas of conservation and are generally regarded as visually intrusive. Consequently, restoration strategies that effectively accelerate natural plant regeneration processes are required. Slate waste tips present extreme conditions for plant establishment with multiple potential limiting factors (e.g., lack of organic matter, nutrients, and poor water retention). In this study, we investigated ecological strategies to accelerate natural regeneration at the largest slate quarry in Europe. A field experiment was conducted to assess ecosystem restoration using a contrasting set of native woody species. Treatments included amendments of waste tips with: polyacrylamide gel to increase water‐holding capacity; mineral fertilizer to increase nutrient supply; and two treatments that increased both (organic waste or boulder clay addition). Ecosystem recovery was evaluated through above‐ and below‐ground productivity (plant and microbial, respectively) and soil analyses. Neither increasing nutrient supply (with mineral fertilizer) nor water‐holding capacity (with polyacrylamide gel) was sufficient, alone, to improve plant establishment. However, both boulder clay and organic waste amendment significantly enhanced plant growth. There was a marked positive interaction in the effects on tree growth of the amendment with organic waste and boulder clay. Large interactions occurred between tree species and substrate amendments. The growth of N₂‐fixing species was strongly favored over non‐fixers where there was no addition of material increasing soil nitrogen supply, whereas the growth advantage of pioneer species over non‐pioneers was greatest with fertilizer, organic waste, or clay additions. Organic waste addition had the greatest positive impact on soil processes.     

Effect of soil texture and its organic content on the efficacy of Trichoderma harzianum (MIAU 145 C) in controlling Meloidogyne javanica and stimulating the growth of kidney beans

The efficiency of Trichoderma harzianum (MIAU 145 C) in promoting kidney bean (cv. Goli) growth in different soil texture (sandy loam, loam and clay loam) and organic matter content (0.5 and 2% of leaf litter) was assessed in a factorial experiment in the absence of Meloidogyne javanica. In another factorial experiment, the effect of soil texture, soil organic content and control measure (no control, 10?ml of T. harzianum containing 10⁶ spore ml^?1 and 2?mg ai cadusafos kg^?1 soil) was determined on nematode-infected kidney bean’s growth, fungus controlling activity and M. javanica reproduction. Except for the shoot length, the fungus improved plant growth. Clay loam was not a proper soil type for the cultivation of kidney bean plants (even in the soil without nematode), but the plant grew better in sandy loam and loam soil. The presence of leaf litter in the soil enhanced plant growth, increased fungal efficiency and increased nematode reproduction. It seems that T. harzianum can activate the plant defence system in sandy loam soil. T. harzianum was more effective in sandy loam or loam soil containing 2% organic matter (leaf litter) and reduced the reproduction factor of the nematode in the tested soil textures equally to the chemical nematicide treatment.     

The effect of addition of different amounts and types of organic materials on soil physical properties and yield of wheat

A field experiment was conducted to investigate the influences of 0, 5, 10, 15 Mg ha^–1 of wheat (Triticum aestivum) straw, composted sugarcane bagasse residue and farmyard manure on soil physical properties and yield of winter wheat. The experimental design was a split plot with four replicates. The considered physical properties, 1 year after organic matter addition, included aggregate stability, infiltration rate, water retention curve and dry bulk density. Wheat yield and chemical characteristics of wheat grains were measured. Application of organic materials significantly increased wheat yield and increased aggregate stability, infiltration rate, water retained at less than –100 kPa, and decreased soil bulk density. The effectiveness of different organic materials, farmyard manure, composted bagasse and wheat straw, on improving the soil physical properties was similar. Wheat grain and stubble yield progressively increased as the rate of the organic materials increased. The effectiveness of composted bagasse, farmyard manure and wheat straw on improving wheat grain yield was 22, 14 and 3%, and wheat stubble yield was 26, 17 and 4% over the control.     

Effects of pine wilt disease invasion on soil properties and Masson pine forest communities in the Three Gorges reservoir region,China

Pine wilt disease (PWD) has caused significant Masson pine mortality in the Three Gorges reservoir region in central China. In this study, five uniform Masson pine stand types infected by PWD were selected and surveyed on slopes and aspects with similar environmental conditions. In sites that had been infected, soil bulk density was reduced, and the difference among the groups was statistically significant (P < 0.05) at the 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm soil layers, but not at 20–40 cm. Other soil water‐related physical properties, excluding noncapillary porosity, significantly differed among the groups in all soil layers. Additionally, the values of available phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium were higher in the invaded stands, but the total nitrogen and organic matter contents were lower. Masson pine does not become reestablished following PWD‐induced mortality but is instead replaced by broad‐leaved tree species. Among the 19 examined environmental variables, five were found to be significantly related with the ordination of plant community structure: Masson pine stumps (MPS), K⁺, capillary water holding capacity (CWHC), capillary porosity (CP), and soil water content (SWC). Among these factors, the plant community structure was principally related to MPS and K⁺. The findings of this study show that the outbreak of PWD has impacted Masson pine forest soil properties and altered forest community composition. The disease is negatively related with the presence of Masson pine and positively associated with that of broad‐leaved tree species.     

Mechanical resistance by an ectorganic soil layer on root development of seedling Pinus sylvestris

We investigated early root development of Pinus sylvestris seedlings in relation to bulk density and natural particle layering in an ectorganic soil layer from a bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) stand. Responses in root development to two levels of bulk density (0.07 and 0.15 g/cm³) in mixed bracken substrate were compared with effects in peat of similar bulk densities, and in sand of three different bulk densities (0.37, 0.52, and 0.67 g/cm³). The effect on root growth of the natural horizontal layering of the organic particles was examined by comparing intact with mixed ectorganic bracken soil profiles of similar bulk densities (resp. 0.09 and 0.07 g/cm³).Root length growth was significantly reduced in the organic and sandy substrates of high bulk density. Root diameter was not affected by bulk density in the organic substrate, but increased with higher bulk density in sand. Preservation of horizontal layering in the intact ectorganic profile significantly reduced root length compared with mixed substrate of similar bulk density.Roots growing in high bulk density, and intact, organic substrate showed increased twisting, which resulted in a smaller depth reached by the root relative to total root length produced. In sand, root twisting did not change with increased bulk density. It is suggested that roots growing through organic substrate follow a path of least resistance. This implies that organic particle size and orientation are more important in determining root development than bulk density.This study points out that the natural layering of organic particles presents another constraint on the establishment of plant species in sites with a well-developed ectorganic soil layer. Disturbance of this layer may therefore enhance establishment of seedlings by reducing the mechanical resistance of the ectorganic soil profile to developing seedling roots.     

Aggregation and C and N contents of soil organic matter fractions in a permanent raised-bed planting system in the Highlands of Central Mexico

Permanent raised bed planting with crop residue retention is a form of conservation agriculture that has been proposed as an alternative to conventional tillage for wheat production systems in the Central Highlands of Mexico. A field experiment comparing permanent and tilled raised beds with different residue management under rainfed conditions was started at El Batán (State of Mexico, Mexico) in 1999. The percentage of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full crop residue retention (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates was lower. The percentages of small and large macroaggregates and mean weight diameter (MWD) was significantly larger in permanent raised beds with residue retention compared to permanent raised beds with removal of the residue (average for maize and wheat), while the percentages free microaggregates and silt and clay fraction was lower. Cultivation of maize significantly reduced the large macroaggregates, while wheat reduced the silt and clay fraction (average over all systems). Cultivation of maize reduced the C and N content of the free microaggregates compared to soil cultivated with wheat, while removal of plant residue reduced the C and N content of the silt and clay fraction compared to soil where residue was retained. The C and N content of the coarse particulate organic matter (cPOM) and microaggregates within the macroaggregates was significantly larger in permanent raised beds compared to conventionally tilled raised beds both with full residue retention, while C and N content of the cPOM was significantly lower when residue was removed or partially removed compared to the soil where the residue was retained. The δ ¹³C ‰ signatures of the macroaggregates, microaggregates, the silt and clay fraction, cPOM and microaggregates within the macroaggregates were not affected by tillage or residue management when wheat was the last crop, but removal of residue reduced the δ ¹³C ‰ signatures of the macro-, microaggregates and microaggregates within the macroaggregates significantly compared to soil where the residue was retained. Retaining only 30–50% of the organic residue still improved the soil structure considerably compared to plots where it was removed completely. Permanent raised beds without residue retention, however, is a practice leading to soil degradation. Kelly Lichter and Bram Govaerts contributed equally to this publication.