PscF is a major component of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa type III secretion needle

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen, translocates exoenzymes (Exo) directly into the eukaryotic cell cytoplasm. This is accomplished by a type III secretion/translocation machinery. Here, we show that the P. aeruginosa type III secretory needle structure is composed essentially of PscF, a protein required for secretion and P. aeruginosa cytotoxicity. Partially purified needles, detached from the bacterial surface, are 60-80 nm in length and 7 nm in width, resembling needles from Yersinia spp.. YscF of Yersinia enterocolitica was able to functionally complement the pscF deletion, but required 11 P. aeruginosa-specific amino acids at the N-terminus for its function.     

IpaD is localized at the tip of the Shigella flexneri type III secretion apparatus

Type III secretion (T3S) systems are used by numerous Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria to inject virulence proteins into animal and plant host cells. The core of the T3S apparatus, known as the needle complex, is composed of a basal body transversing both bacterial membranes and a needle protruding above the bacterial surface. In Shigella flexneri, IpaD is required to inhibit the activity of the T3S apparatus prior to contact of bacteria with host and has been proposed to assist translocation of bacterial proteins into host cells. We investigated the localization of IpaD by electron microscopy analysis of cross-linked bacteria and mildly purified needle complexes. This analysis revealed the presence of a distinct density at the needle tip. A combination of single particle analysis, immuno-labeling and biochemical analysis, demonstrated that IpaD forms part of the structure at the needle tip. Anti-IpaD antibodies were shown to block entry of bacteria into epithelial cells.     

Sequence divergence in type III secretion gene clusters of the Burkholderia cepacia complex

The Burkholderia cepacia complex (BCC) comprises a group of bacteria associated with opportunistic infections, especially in cystic fibrosis patients. B. cenocepacia J2315, of the transmissible ET12 lineage, contains a type III secretion (TTS) gene cluster implicated in pathogenicity. PCR and hybridisation assays indicate that the TTS gene cluster is present in all members of the BCC except B. cepacia (formerly genomovar I). The TTS gene clusters of B. cenocepacia J2315 and B. multivorans are similar in organisation but have variable levels of gene identity. Nucleotide sequence data obtained for the equivalent region of the B. cepacia genome indicate the absence of TTS structural genes due to a rearrangement likely to involve more than one step.     

A NanoLuc luciferase-based assay enabling the real-time analysis of protein secretion and injection by bacterial type III secretion systems

The elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of secretion through bacterial protein secretion systems is impeded by a shortage of assays to quantitatively assess secretion kinetics. Also the analysis of the biological role of these secretion systems as well as the identification of inhibitors targeting these systems would greatly benefit from the availability of a simple, quick and quantitative assay to monitor principle secretion and injection into host cells. Here, we present a versatile solution to this need, utilizing the small and very bright NanoLuc luciferase to assess the function of the type III secretion system encoded by Salmonella pathogenicity island 1. Type III secretion substrate–NanoLuc fusions are readily secreted into the culture supernatant, where they can be quantified by luminometry after removal of bacteria. The NanoLuc-based secretion assay features a very high signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity down to the nanolitre scale. The assay enables monitoring of secretion kinetics and is adaptable to a high throughput screening format in 384-well microplates. We further developed a split NanoLuc-based assay that enables the real-time monitoring of type III secretion-dependent injection of effector–HiBiT fusions into host cells stably expressing the complementing NanoLuc–LgBiT.     

大肠杆菌Ⅲ型分泌系统2毒力岛研究进展

许多革兰氏阴性菌借助Ⅲ型分泌系统黏附在宿主细胞表面,然后跨越胞膜将特异性蛋白注入宿主细胞内,破坏宿主细胞内的多种信号通路,从而有利于细菌的感染及定殖。在肠致病性大肠杆菌(Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli,EPEC)中,除了肠细胞脱落位点(Locus of entericyte effacement,LEE)毒力岛编码的Ⅲ型分泌系统(Type Ⅲ secretion system,T3SS)外,在分析肠出血性大肠杆菌O157:H7的基因组序列时发现一个新的Ⅲ型分泌系统,大肠杆菌Ⅲ型分泌系统2(Escherichia coli type Ⅲ secretion system 2,ETT2)毒力岛。研究显示,ETT2可能在大多数菌株中不具有完整的分泌系统功能,但是其对于细菌毒力的发挥具有重要作用。因此,本文简要综述了大肠杆菌ETT2的基因特征、ETT2的分布与流行、ETT2的功能与机制等方面的主要研究进展。     

Lactoferrin disruption of bacterial type III secretion systems

Many gram-negative bacteria share a closely related mechanism for secretion of virulence proteins. This complex machine, the type III secretion system, secretes virulence proteins in response to sensing the presence of target mammalian cells. We have found that recombinant human lactoferrin impairs the function of this system in two model organisms: Shigella and Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC). In the case of Shigella, there is loss and degradation of two proteins secreted by the type III mechanism, invasion plasmid antigens B and C (IpaB and IpaC); these proteins normally form a complex that causes Shigella to be taken up by host mammalian cells. In the case of EPEC, lactoferrin causes loss and degradation of E. coli secreted proteins A, B and D (EspABD) particularly EspB. These proteins are components of type III machinery and are known to be key elements of EPEC pathogenesis. Studies using purified EspB demonstrated that lactoferrin has a direct proteolytic effect on EspB that can be prevented by serine protease inhibitors. A synthetic peptide of the N-terminal 33 amino acids of lactoferrin caused loss of cell associated EspB but, unlike the whole lactoferrin molecule, did not caused degradation of EspB. Thus, in both model systems, brief exposure to lactoferrin causes loss and degradation of type III secretion system virulence proteins.     

Identification of a type III secretion system in uropathogenic Escherichia coli

To determine virulence-related genes in uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) showing invasiveness to T-24 bladder cancer cells, genomic subtractive hybridization was performed between a highly invasive and a less invasive strain. Forty-nine DNA fragments were isolated from the invasive strain. One of them showed homology with Salmonella invA gene. By chromosomal walking of the strain, a type III secretion system that has been described in E. coli O157:H7 was identified on the genome of the invasive strains. Three strains out of 100 UPEC isolates had a type III secretion system inserted at 64 min of the chromosome, corresponding to E. coli K-12 MG1655. This finding suggested that the type III secretion system could play a part in uropathogenicity of UPEC.     

III型分泌系统抑制剂对铜绿假单胞菌PAO1毒性因子的影响

【目的】进一步研究III型分泌系统(Type III secretion system, TTSS)抑制剂对条件致病菌Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1的TTSS相关蛋白、鞭毛和纤毛等主要毒性因子的影响,评估TTSS抑制剂的防治效果及潜在风险。【方法】构建TTSS效应蛋白合成基因exoY和exoT转录报告质粒pAT-exoY、pAT-exoT,并将其转入菌株PAO1中。菌株PAO1(pAT-exoY)、PAO1(pAT-exoT) 与TTSS抑制剂共同培养后,检测exoY和exoT的表达。通过SDS-PAGE检测TTSS抑制剂对鞭毛结构蛋白FliC的影响。将PAO1单菌落穿刺接种于含有TTSS抑制剂的1%琼脂糖平板,观察细菌纤毛介导的蹭行运动(Twitching motility)。【结果】转录报告实验结果表明4个TTSS抑制剂可显著抑制exoY和exoT的转录;化合物TS52、TS53和TS94虽不影响胞内TTSS针状顶端结构蛋白PcrV的产量,但可抑制PcrV蛋白的胞外运输。化合物TS53可降低鞭毛结构蛋白FliC的产生。另外,化合物TS52、TS53和TS88可降低菌株PAO1的蹭行运动能力,但TS94可提高菌株PAO1的这种运动能力。【结论】TTSS抑制剂除通过抑制TTSS表达外,还可能通过影响其它毒性因子如鞭毛的合成、IV型分泌系统介导的蹭行运动等方式影响菌株PAO1致病性。     

Functional analysis of the type III secretion system in enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H45

A mass outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H45 was first reported in Japan in 1998. This pathogen was classified as an enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) O157 because it was characterized by the Shiga toxin gene (stx)-negative and bundle-forming pilus (bfp) gene-positive genotypes. In this study, we investigated the type III secretion system in EPEC O157. Although no type III secreted proteins, Esps (E. colisecreted proteins), in EPEC O157:H45 were detectable in culture supernatant, secreted proteins were induced by the introduction of an EPEC plasmid-encoded regulator, per. In further contrast to EHEC O157:H7, EPEC O157:H45 triggered the accumulation of tyrosine phosphorylated proteins beneath the adherent bacteria. These results suggest that regulation of the type III secretion apparatus and host signal transduction events between E. coli O157:H45 and O157:H7 are completely different.     

The type III secretion system needle,tip, and translocon

Many Gram‐negative bacteria pathogenic to plants and animals deploy the type III secretion system (T3SS) to inject virulence factors into their hosts. All bacteria that rely on the T3SS to cause infectious diseases in humans have developed antibiotic resistance. The T3SS is an attractive target for developing new antibiotics because it is essential in virulence, and part of its structural component is exposed on the bacterial surface. The structural component of the T3SS is the needle apparatus, which is assembled from over 20 different proteins and consists of a base, an extracellular needle, a tip, and a translocon. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the structure and assembly of the needle, tip, and translocon.     

Identification and characterization of a type III secretion-associated chaperone in the type III secretion system 1 of Vibrio parahaemolyticus

Vibrio parahaemolyticus causes human gastroenteritis. Genomic sequencing of this organism has revealed that it has two sets of type III secretion systems, T3SS1 and T3SS2, both of which are important for its pathogenicity. However, the mechanism of protein secretion via T3SSs is unknown. A characteristic of many effectors is that they require specific chaperones for efficient delivery via T3SSs; however, no chaperone has been experimentally identified in the T3SSs of V. parahaemolyticus . In this study, we identified candidate T3SS1-associated chaperones from genomic sequence data and examined their roles in effector secretion/translocation and binding to their cognate substrates. From these experiments, we concluded that there is a T3S-associated chaperone, VecA, for a cytotoxic T3SS1-dependent effector, VepA. Further analysis using pulldown and secretion assays characterized the chaperone-binding domain encompassing the first 30–100 amino acids and an amino terminal secretion signal encompassing the first 5–20 amino acids on VepA. These findings will provide a strategy to clarify how the T3SS1 of V. parahaemolyticus secretes its specific effectors.     

Pseudomonas aeruginosa utilises its type III secretion system to kill the free-living amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a free-living and common environmental bacterium. It is an opportunistic and nosocomial pathogen causing serious human health problems. To overcome its predators, such as macrophages and environmental phagocytes, it utilises different survival strategies, such as the formation of microcolonies and the production of toxins mediated by a type III secretion system (TTSS). The aim of this study was to examine interaction of TTSS effector proteins of P. aeruginosa PA103 with Acanthamoeba castellanii by co-cultivation, viable count, eosin staining, electron microscopy, apoptosis assay, and statistical analysis. The results showed that P. aeruginosa PA103 induced necrosis and apoptosis to kill A. castellanii by the effects of TTSS effector proteins ExoU, ExoS, ExoT, and ExoY. In comparison, Acanthamoeba cultured alone and co-cultured with P. aeruginosa PA103 lacking the known four TTSS effector proteins were not killed. The results are consistent with P. aeruginosa being a strict extracellular bacterium that needs TTSS to survive in the environment, because the TTSS effector proteins are able to kill its eukaryotic predators, such as Acanthamoeba.     

肉桂酸衍生物对铜绿假单胞菌PAO1 III型分泌系统的影响

【目的】铜绿假单胞菌是引起医院获得性感染最常见的条件致病菌,而III型分泌系统(Type III secretion system,TTSS)是其致病的主要因子之一。本文从合成的21个肉桂酸衍生物中筛选影响TTSS效应子(Effector)产生的化合物,并初步研究其作用机制。【方法】将TTSS效应子合成基因exoS的转录报告质粒pAT-exoS转入菌株PAO1中,获得PAO1(pAT-exoS)。待筛选的化合物与PAO1(pAT-exoS)菌株共培养6 h后,检测exoS基因的表达,从中筛选影响exoS基因表达的化合物。【结果】筛选结果表明：21个化合物中,3个化合物抑制exoS基因表达,2个化合物则促进exoS基因表达。此外,化合物TS128、TS143和TS160对菌株生长有明显的抑制作用。Western blot实验进一步证实筛选得到的化合物TS108、TS128和TS165可抑制ExoS的产生;化合物TS139和TS143则促进ExoS的产生。为进一步研究抑制剂的作用机理,过量表达TTSS主要的调控因子exsA基因可部分消除抑制剂TS108和TS165的抑制效果;而rsmZ rsmY双基因突变体PAO6421中添加抑制剂TS108和TS165并不能显著抑制exoS基因的表达,同样,抑制剂TS108和TS165也不影响受Gac/Rsm信号传导系统调控的群体感应信号分子的产生。【结论】抑制剂TS108和TS165的作用机制可能主要是影响esxA基因,从而影响exoS基因表达及蛋白产量。     

A putative type III secretion gene cluster is widely distributed in the Burkholderia cepacia complex but absent from genomovar I

Using probes constructed from Ralstonia solanacearum and Burkholderia pseudomallei, putative type III secretion (TTS) genes were identified in Burkholderia cepacia J2315 (genomovar III). A cosmid clone containing DNA with homology to five TTS genes was sub-cloned and regions were sequenced in order to design oligonucleotides for polymerase chain reaction assays. These indicated that two putative TTS genes (bcscQ and bcscV) were present in all members of the B. cepacia complex with the exception of strains from genomovar I. Southern blot assays confirmed this observation, suggesting that the lack of a TTS gene cluster may define a major difference between B. cepacia genomovar I and other members of the B. cepacia complex, including genomovar III. In contrast to TTS gene clusters in other bacteria, a putative gene homologous to the virB1 gene of Brucella suis was located directly downstream of bcscQR.     

Iron starvation regulates the type III secretion system in Bordetella bronchiseptica

The type III secretion system (T3SS) plays a key role in the exertion of full virulence by Bordetella bronchiseptica. However, little is known about the environmental stimuli that induce expression of T3SS genes. Here, it is reported that iron starvation is a signal for T3SS gene expression in B. bronchiseptica. It was found that, when B. bronchiseptica is cultured under iron-depleted conditions, secretion of type III secreted proteins is greater than that in bacteria grown under iron-replete conditions. Furthermore, it was confirmed that induction of T3SS-dependent host cell cytotoxicity and hemolytic activity is greatly enhanced by infection with iron-depleted Bordetella. In contrast, production of filamentous hemagglutinin is reduced in iron-depleted Bordetella. Thus, B. bronchiseptica controls the expression of virulence genes in response to iron starvation.     

Endofungal bacterium controls its host by an hrp type III secretion system

Burkholderia rhizoxinica and Rhizopus microsporus form a unique symbiosis in which intracellular bacteria produce the virulence factor of the phytopathogenic fungus. Notably, the host strictly requires endobacteria to sporulate. In this study, we show that the endofungal bacteria possess a type III secretion system (T3SS), which has a crucial role in the maintenance of the alliance. Mutants defective in type III secretion show reduced intracellular survival and fail to elicit sporulation of the host. Furthermore, genes coding for T3SS components are upregulated during cocultivation of the bacterial symbiont with their host. This is the first report on a T3SS involved in bacterial–fungal symbiosis. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the T3SS represents a prototype of a clade of yet uncharacterized T3SSs within the hrp superfamily of T3SSs from plant pathogenic microorganisms. In a control experiment, we demonstrate that under laboratory conditions, rhizoxin production was not required for establishment of the symbiotic interaction.     

The Bordetella type III secretion system: its application to vaccine development

B. pertussis is a causative agent of whooping cough (pertussis) in humans. Despite wide-scale vaccination in many countries, there is serious concern about pertussis as a re-emerging disease. Re-emergence of pertussis may be explained by several factors: the short duration of protection by the currently available acellular pertussis vaccine, an increase in asymptomatic adult carriers and expansion of strains with certain antigenic variations which are not covered by currently available vaccines. To develop safer and more efficacious vaccines which confer more prolonged protection, researchers are focusing on identification and characterization of new virulence factors. One candidate for protective antigens is the type III secretion system and its secreted proteins.