Inducible expression of Tau repeat domain in cell models of tauopathy: aggregation is toxic to cells but can be reversed by inhibitor drugs

We generated several cell models of tauopathy in order to study the mechanisms of neurodegeneration in diseases involving abnormal changes of tau protein. N2a neuroblastoma cell lines were created that inducibly express different variants of the repeat domain of tau (tau(RD)) when exposed to doxycycline (Tet-On system). The following three constructs were chosen: (i) the repeat domain of tau that coincides with the core of Alzheimer paired helical filaments; (ii) the repeat domain with the deletion mutation DeltaK280 known from frontotemporal dementia and highly prone to spontaneous aggregation; and (iii) the repeat domain with DeltaK280 and two proline point mutations that inhibit aggregation. The comparison of wild-type, pro-aggregation, and anti-aggregation mutants shows the following. (a) Aggregation of tau(RD) is toxic to cells. (b) The degree of aggregation and toxicity depends on the propensity for beta-structure. (c) Soluble mutants of tau(RD) that cannot aggregate are not toxic. (d) Aggregation is preceded by fragmentation. (e) Fragmentation of tau(RD) in cells is initially due to a thrombin-like protease activity. (f) Phosphorylation of tau(RD) (at KXGS motifs) precedes aggregation but is not correlated with the degree of aggregation. (g) Aggregates of tau(RD) disappear when the expression is silenced, showing that aggregation is reversible. (h) Aggregation can be prevented by drugs and even pre-formed aggregates can be dissolved again by drugs. Thus, the cell models open up new insights into the relationship between the structure, expression, phosphorylation, aggregation, and toxicity of tau(RD) that can be used to test current hypotheses on tauopathy and to develop drugs that prevent the aggregation and degeneration of cells.     

Impairment of redox state and dopamine level induced by alpha-synuclein aggregation and the prevention effect of hsp70

One hypothesis for the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is that the formation of proteinaceous inclusion, which is mainly composed of alpha-synuclein, may contribute to the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons. To further explore the role of alpha-synuclein in neurodegeneration of PD, we examined the possible effects of aggregated alpha-synuclein on the intracellular redox state, dopamine level, and cell death of SK-N-SH cells. Our present studies show that alpha-synuclein aggregation gives rise to both elevated intracellular oxidative state and dopamine level in SK-N-SH cells. Moreover, alpha-synuclein aggregation results in a higher ratio of apoptosis population (55.8%+/-SEM) in cells overexpressing alpha-synuclein aggregation, compared to their normal control groups (8.0%+/-SEM). In contrast, coexpression of hsp70 with alpha-synuclein suppresses the oxidative state shift, restores the normal dopamine levels and blocks neuron cell loss. Therefore, our data provided one possible mechanism by which the alpha-synuclein aggregation may lead to the neurodegeneration in PD via regulating the level of cytoplasmic dopamine and then disturbing the intracellular redox homeostasis. On the other hand, hsp70 can mitigate the degenerative effect conferred by alpha-synuclein, acting as a protective factor in treatment of PD.     

Detection and quantification of tau aggregation using a membrane filter assay

Aggregation of the microtubule-associated protein tau contributes to the formation of neurofibrillary lesions in Alzheimer's disease and is a useful marker of disease progression. Although filter trap assays have been employed to assess the extent of tau aggregation in cells and tissues as well as in vitro, their performance relative to other assay modalities has not been reported. To clarify this issue, the ability of the filter trap approach to quantify aggregation of purified recombinant full-length tau protein in vitro was examined as a function of membrane chemistry in a 96-well format. Results showed that nitrocellulose yielded the greatest assay sensitivity relative to polyvinylidene fluoride or cellulose acetate at equal membrane porosity. However, all combinations of filter chemistries, porosities, and monoclonal detection antibodies yielded nonlinear correlations between signal intensity and analyte concentration. When corrected for nonlinearity, the filter trap assay determined a value for the critical monomer concentration for tau aggregation that was statistically identical to determinations made by electron microscopy assay. The data suggest conditions under which filter trap assays can be used to estimate tau aggregation kinetics.     

Stabilization of partially folded conformation during alpha-synuclein oligomerization in both purified and cytosolic preparations

Aggregation of alpha-synuclein is tightly associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy body, Lewy body variant of Alzheimer's disease, multiple system atrophy, and Hallervorden-Spatz disease, implicating a crucial role of aggregated forms of alpha-synuclein in the pathogenesis. Here, we examined the effect of elevated temperature on the oligomerization and structural changes of alpha-synuclein in the early stage of aggregation and show that self-assembly is crucial for the stabilization of a partially folded conformation. The efficiency of alpha-synuclein oligomerization increased proportional to the temperature increase, both in purified form and in crude cytosolic preparation. This oligomerization coincided with a small but reproducible change in the circular dichroism spectrum and an increase in the 1-anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonic acid binding. The hydrodynamic dimensions of the dimer measured by size exclusion chromatography suggest a pre-molten globule-like structure. These data suggest that partially folded alpha-synuclein, which is unstable in the monomeric form, is stabilized by self-assembly and that these oligomers may evolve into the fibril nucleus.     

Formaldehyde at low concentration induces protein tau into globular amyloid-like aggregates in vitro and in vivo

Recent studies have shown that neurodegeneration is closely related to misfolding and aggregation of neuronal tau. Our previous results show that neuronal tau aggregates in formaldehyde solution and that aggregated tau induces apoptosis of SH-SY5Y and hippocampal cells. In the present study, based on atomic force microscopy (AFM) observation, we have found that formaldehyde at low concentrations induces tau polymerization whilst acetaldehyde does not. Neuronal tau misfolds and aggregates into globular-like polymers in 0.01-0.1% formaldehyde solutions. Apart from globular-like aggregation, no fibril-like polymerization was observed when the protein was incubated with formaldehyde for 15 days. SDS-PAGE results also exhibit tau polymerizing in the presence of formaldehyde. Under the same experimental conditions, polymerization of bovine serum albumin (BSA) or alpha-synuclein was not markedly detected. Kinetic study shows that tau significantly misfolds and polymerizes in 60 minutes in 0.1% formaldehyde solution. However, presence of 10% methanol prevents protein tau from polymerization. This suggests that formaldehyde polymerization is involved in tau aggregation. Such aggregation process is probably linked to the tau's special "worm-like" structure, which leaves the epsilon-amino groups of Lys and thiol groups of Cys exposed to the exterior. Such a structure can easily bond to formaldehyde molecules in vitro and in vivo. Polymerizing of formaldehyde itself results in aggregation of protein tau. Immunocytochemistry and thioflavin S staining of both endogenous and exogenous tau in the presence of formaldehyde at low concentrations in the cell culture have shown that formaldehyde can induce tau into amyloid-like aggregates in vivo during apoptosis. The significant protein tau aggregation induced by formaldehyde and the severe toxicity of the aggregated tau to neural cells may suggest that toxicity of methanol and formaldehyde ingestion is related to tau misfolding and aggregation.     

Geldanamycin induces Hsp70 and prevents alpha-synuclein aggregation and toxicity in vitro

Geldanamycin (GA) is a naturally occurring benzoquinone ansamycin that induces heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70). GA has been shown to reduce alpha-synuclein induced neurotoxicity in a fly model of Parkinson's disease. We have previously shown that heat shock proteins can prevent alpha-synuclein aggregation and protect against alpha-synuclein induced toxicity in human H4 neuroglioma cells. Here, we hypothesize that GA treatment will reduce alpha-synuclein aggregation and prevent alpha-synuclein induced toxicity and we show that GA can induce Hsp70 in a time- and concentration-dependent manner in H4 cells. Pretreatment with 200nM GA 24h prior to transfection prevented alpha-synuclein aggregation and protected against toxicity. Treatment of cells with pre-existing inclusions with GA did not result in a reduction in the number of cells containing inclusions, suggesting that upregulation of Hsp70 is not sufficient to remove established inclusions. Similarly, Western blot analysis demonstrated that GA treatment could dramatically reduce both total alpha-synuclein and high molecular weight alpha-synuclein aggregates. Taken together, these data suggest that GA is effective in preventing alpha-synuclein aggregation and may represent a pharmacological intervention to therapeutically increase expression of molecular chaperone proteins to treat neurodegenerative diseases where aggregation is central to the pathogenesis.     

The significance of tau and alpha-synuclein inclusions in neurodegenerative diseases

Intracellular filamentous inclusions made of either the microtubule-associated protein tau or the protein alpha-synuclein define the majority of cases of neurodegenerative disease. Mutations in the tau gene in familial forms of frontotemporal dementia and in the alpha-synuclein gene in familial cases of Parkinson's disease have provided causal links between the dysfunction of these proteins and neurodegeneration. Over the past year, several novel tau gene mutations have been identified and more has been learned about possible mechanisms by which tau gene mutations lead to frontotemporal dementia. Experimental animal models have provided a link between tau filament formation and nerve cell degeneration. Along similar lines, animal models have been produced that result in the formation of alpha-synuclein filaments and the degeneration of dopaminergic nerve cells. Building on previous work, synthetic alpha-synuclein filaments have been shown to exhibit the characteristics of amyloid.     

Synergistic influence of phosphorylation and metal ions on tau oligomer formation and coaggregation with alpha-synuclein at the single molecule level

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Fibrillar amyloid-like deposits and co-deposits of tau and alpha-synuclein are found in several common neurodegenerative diseases. Recent evidence indicates that small oligomers are the most relevant toxic aggregate species. While tau fibril formation is well-characterized, factors influencing tau oligomerization and molecular interactions of tau and alpha-synuclein are not well understood. RESULTS: We used a novel approach applying confocal single-particle fluorescence to investigate the influence of tau phosphorylation and metal ions on tau oligomer formation and its coaggregation with alpha-synuclein at the level of individual oligomers. We show that Al3+ at physiologically relevant concentrations and tau phosphorylation by GSK-3beta exert synergistic effects on the formation of a distinct SDS-resistant tau oligomer species even at nanomolar protein concentration. Moreover, tau phosphorylation and Al3+ as well as Fe3+ enhanced both formation of mixed oligomers and recruitment of alpha-synuclein in pre-formed tau oligomers. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide a new perspective on interactions of tau phosphorylation, metal ions, and the formation of potentially toxic oligomer species, and elucidate molecular crosstalks between different aggregation pathways involved in neurodegeneration.     

Controlling the mass action of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease with unknown etiology. Growing evidence from genetic, pathologic, animal modeling, and biochemical studies strongly support the theory that abnormal aggregation of alpha-synuclein plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of PD. Protein aggregation is an alternative folding process that competes with the native folding pathway. Whether or not a protein is subject to the aggregation process is determined by the concentration of the protein as well as thermodynamic properties inherent to each polypeptide. An increase in cellular concentration of alpha-synuclein has been associated with the disease in both familial and sporadic forms of PD. Thus, maintenance of the intraneuronal steady state levels of alpha-synuclein below the critical concentration is a key challenge neuronal cells are facing. Expression of the alpha-synuclein gene is under the control of environmental factors and aging, the two best-established risk factors for PD. Studies also suggest that the degradation of this protein is mediated by proteasomal and autophagic pathways, which are two mechanisms that are related to the pathogenesis of PD. Recently, vesicle-mediated exocytosis has been suggested as a novel mechanism for disposal of neuronal alpha-synuclein. Relocalization of the protein to specific compartments may be another method for increasing its local concentration. Regulation of the neuronal steady state levels of alpha-synuclein has significant implications in the development of PD, and understanding the mechanism may disclose potential therapeutic targets for PD and other related diseases.     

Identification and isolation of a hyperphosphorylated, conformationally changed intermediate of human protein tau expressed in yeast

Hyperphosphorylation and aggregation of protein tau are typical for neurodegenerative tauopathies, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). We demonstrate here that human tau expressed in yeast acquired pathological phosphoepitopes, assumed a pathological conformation, and formed aggregates. These processes were modulated by yeast kinases Mds1 and Pho85, orthologues of GSK-3beta and cdk5, respectively. Surprisingly, inactivation of Pho85 increased phosphorylation of tau-4R, concomitant with increased conformational change defined by antibody MC1 and a 40-fold increase in aggregation. Soluble protein tau, purified from yeast lacking PHO85, spontaneously and rapidly formed tau filaments in vitro. Further fractionation of tau by anion-exchange chromatography yielded a hyperphosphorylated monomeric subfraction, termed hP-tau/MC1, with slow electrophoretic mobility and enriched with all major epitopes, including MC1. Isolated hP-tau/MC1 vastly accelerated in vitro aggregation of wild-type tau-4R, demonstrating its functional capacity to initiate aggregation, as well as its structural stability. Combined, this novel yeast model recapitulates hyperphosphorylation, conformation, and aggregation of protein tau, provides insight in molecular changes crucial in tauopathies, offers a source for isolation of modified protein tau, and has potential for identification of modulating compounds and genes.     

Hsp70 Reduces alpha-Synuclein Aggregation and Toxicity

Aggregation and cytotoxicity of misfolded alpha-synuclein is postulated to be crucial in the disease process of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease and DLB (dementia with Lewy bodies). In this study, we detected misfolded and aggregated alpha-synuclein in a Triton X-100 insoluble fraction as well as a high molecular weight product by gel electrophoresis of temporal neocortex from DLB patients but not from controls. We also found similar Triton X-100 insoluble forms of alpha-synuclein in an alpha-synuclein transgenic mouse model and in an in vitro model of alpha-synuclein aggregation. Introducing the molecular chaperone Hsp70 into the in vivo model by breeding alpha-synuclein transgenic mice with Hsp70-overexpressing mice led to a significant reduction in both the high molecular weight and detergent-insoluble alpha-synuclein species. Concomitantly, we found that Hsp70 overexpression in vitro similarly reduced detergent-insoluble alpha-synuclein species and protected cells from alpha-synuclein-induced cellular toxicity. Taken together, these data demonstrate that the molecular chaperone Hsp70 can reduce the amount of misfolded, aggregated alpha-synuclein species in vivo and in vitro and protect it from alpha-synuclein-dependent toxicity.     

Monoubiquitylation of alpha-synuclein by seven in absentia homolog (SIAH) promotes its aggregation in dopaminergic cells

alpha-Synuclein plays a major role in Parkinson disease. Unraveling the mechanisms of alpha-synuclein aggregation is essential to understand the formation of Lewy bodies and their involvement in dopaminergic cell death. alpha-Synuclein is ubiquitylated in Lewy bodies, but the role of alpha-synuclein ubiquitylation has been mysterious. We now report that the ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligase seven in absentia homolog (SIAH) directly interacts with and monoubiquitylates alpha-synuclein and promotes its aggregation in vitro and in vivo, which is toxic to cells. Mass spectrometry analysis demonstrates that SIAH monoubiquitylates alpha-synuclein at lysines 12, 21, and 23, which were previously shown to be ubiquitylated in Lewy bodies. SIAH ubiquitylates lysines 10, 34, 43, and 96 as well. Suppression of SIAH expression by short hairpin RNA to SIAH-1 and SIAH-2 abolished alpha-synuclein monoubiquitylation in dopaminergic cells, indicating that endogenous SIAH ubiquitylates alpha-synuclein. Moreover, SIAH co-immunoprecipitated with alpha-synuclein from brain extracts. Inhibition of proteasomal, lysosomal, and autophagic pathways, as well as overexpression of a ubiquitin mutant less prone to deubiquitylation, G76A, increased monoubiquitylation of alpha-synuclein by SIAH. Monoubiquitylation increased the aggregation of alpha-synuclein in vitro. At the electron microscopy level, monoubiquitylated alpha-synuclein promoted the formation of massive amounts of amorphous aggregates. Monoubiquitylation also increased alpha-synuclein aggregation in vivo as observed by increased formation of alpha-synuclein inclusion bodies within dopaminergic cells. These inclusions are toxic to cells, and their formation was prevented when endogenous SIAH expression was suppressed. Our data suggest that monoubiquitylation represents a possible trigger event for alpha-synuclein aggregation and Lewy body formation.     

Alpha-synuclein alters proteasome function, protein synthesis, and stationary phase viability

Alpha-synuclein appears to play a role in mediating neurotoxicity in a number of neurodegenerative disorders, collectively referred to as synucleinopathies. Most of these disorders are associated with aging and a probable impairment of the proteasome-proteolytic pathway, although the relationship between aging, proteasome inhibition, and alpha-synuclein toxicity has not been fully elucidated. Recent studies suggest that yeast may provide a useful system for studying the biology and toxicity of alpha-synuclein in mitotic cells, recapitulating many features observed in the various synucleinopathy disorders. Additional studies indicate that the stationary phase model of aging in yeast provides a useful system for understanding the biochemistry and regulation of aging in post-mitotic cells. In the present study we examined the effect of wild type and mutant alpha-synuclein (A30P) on multiple aspects of proteasome homeostasis, protein synthesis, as well as the ability of cells to survive stationary phase aging. These data demonstrate that alpha-synuclein alters proteasome composition, impairs proteasome-mediated protein degradation, impairs protein synthesis, and impairs the ability of cells to withstand stationary phase aging. Interestingly, alpha-synuclein had little effect on intracellular proteasome content or protein ubiquitination, and did not increase the vulnerability of cells to a variety of stressors. Together, these data suggest that yeast may be useful for understanding the ability of alpha-synuclein to impair proteasome-mediated protein degradation, as well as for understanding the basis for age-related alpha-synuclein cytotoxicity.     

The mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone triggers a cerebral tauopathy

Reduced activity of the mitochondrial respiratory chain--particularly complex I--may be implicated in the etiology of both Parkinson's disease and progressive supranuclear palsy, although these neurodegenerative diseases differ substantially as to their distinctive pattern of neuronal cell loss and the predominance of cerebral alpha-synuclein or tau protein pathology. To determine experimentally whether chronic generalized complex I inhibition has an effect on the distribution of alpha-synuclein or tau, we infused rats systemically with the plant-derived isoflavonoid rotenone. Rotenone-treated rats with a pronounced metabolic impairment had reduced locomotor activity, dystonic limb posture and postural instability. They lost neurons in the substantia nigra and in the striatum. Spherical deposits of alpha-synuclein were observed in a few cells, but cells with abnormal cytoplasmic accumulations of tau immunoreactivity were significantly more numerous in the striatum of severely lesioned rats. Abnormally high levels of tau immunoreactivity were found in the cytoplasm of neurons, oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. Ultrastructurally, tau-immunoreactive material consisted of straight 15-nm filaments decorated by antibodies against phosphorylated tau. Many tau+ cell bodies also stained positive for thioflavin S, nitrotyrosine and ubiquitin. Some cells with abnormal tau immunoreactivity contained activated caspase 3. Our data suggest that chronic respiratory chain dysfunction might trigger a form of neurodegeneration in which accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau protein predominates over deposits of alpha-synuclein.     

alpha-synuclein fibrillogenesis is nucleation-dependent. Implications for the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is pathologically characterized by the presence of intracytoplasmic Lewy bodies, the major components of which are filaments consisting of alpha-synuclein. Two recently identified point mutations in alpha-synuclein are the only known genetic causes of PD. alpha-Synuclein fibrils similar to the Lewy body filaments can be formed in vitro, and we have shown recently that both PD-linked mutations accelerate their formation. This study addresses the mechanism of alpha-synuclein aggregation: we show that (i) it is a nucleation-dependent process that can be seeded by aggregated alpha-synuclein functioning as nuclei, (ii) this fibril growth follows first-order kinetics with respect to alpha-synuclein concentration, and (iii) mutant alpha-synuclein can seed the aggregation of wild type alpha-synuclein, which leads us to predict that the Lewy bodies of familial PD patients with alpha-synuclein mutations will contain both, the mutant and the wild type protein. Finally (iv), we show that wild type and mutant forms of alpha-synuclein do not differ in their critical concentrations. These results suggest that differences in aggregation kinetics of alpha-synucleins cannot be explained by differences in solubility but are due to different nucleation rates. Consequently, alpha-synuclein nucleation may be the rate-limiting step for the formation of Lewy body alpha-synuclein fibrils in Parkinson's disease.     

Propeptide of aminopeptidase 1 protein mediates aggregation and vesicle formation in cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway

Misfolded protein aggregation causes disease and aging; autophagy counteracts this by eliminating damaged components, enabling cells to survive starvation. The cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway in yeast encompasses the aggregation of the premature form of aminopeptidase 1 (prApe1) in cytosol and its sequestration by autophagic proteins into a vesicle for vacuolar transport. We show that the propeptide of Ape1 is important for aggregation and vesicle formation and that it is sufficient for binding to prApe1 and Atg19. Defective aggregation disrupts vacuolar transport, suggesting that aggregate shape is important in vesicle formation, whereas Atg19 binding is not sufficient for vacuolar transport. Aggregation involves hydrophobicity, whereas Atg19 binding requires additional electrostatic interactions. Ape1 dodecamerization may cluster propeptides into trimeric structures, with sufficient affinity to form propeptide hexamers by binding to other dodecamers, causing aggregation. We show that Ape1 aggregates bind Atg19 and Atg8 in vitro; this could be used as a scaffold for an in vitro assay of autophagosome formation to elucidate the mechanisms of autophagy.     

Neuropathology, biochemistry, and biophysics of alpha-synuclein aggregation

Aggregation of alpha-synuclein, an abundant and conserved pre-synaptic brain protein, is implicated as a critical factor in several neurodegenerative diseases. These diseases, known as synucleinopathies, include Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies (LBs), diffuse LB disease, the LB variant of Alzheimer's disease, multiple system atrophy, and neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation type I. Although the precise nature of in vivoalpha-synuclein function remains elusive, considerable knowledge has been accumulated about its structural properties and conformational behavior. alpha-Synuclein is a typical natively unfolded protein. It is characterized by the lack of rigid, well-defined, 3-D structure and possesses remarkable conformational plasticity. The structure of this protein depends dramatically on its environment and it accommodates a number of unrelated conformations. This paper provides an overview of the biochemistry, biophysics, and neuropathology of alpha-synuclein aggregation.     

The role of the VQIVYK peptide in tau protein phosphorylation

Although it remains unclear whether they are related to one another, tau aggregation and phosphorylation are the main pathological hallmarks of the neuronal disorders known as tauopathies. The capacity to aggregate is impaired in a variant of the tau 3R isoform that lacks residues 306–311 (nomenclature for the largest CNS tau isoform) and hence, we have taken advantage of this feature to study how phosphorylation and aggregation may be related as well as the role of this six amino acid peptide (VQIVYK). Through these analyses, we found that the phosphorylation of the tau variant was higher than that of the complete tau protein and that not only the deletion of these residues, but also the interaction of these residues, in tau 3R, with thioflavin-S augmented tau phosphorylation by glycogen synthase kinase 3. In addition, the binding of the peptide containing the residues 306–311 to the whole tau protein provoked an increase in tau phosphorylation. This observation could be physiologically relevant as may suggest that tau–tau interactions, through those residues, facilitate tau phosphorylation. In summary, our data indicate that deletion of residues VQIVYK, in tau protein produces an increase in tau phosphorylation, without tau aggregation, because the VQIVYK peptide, that favors aggregation, is missing. On the other hand, when the whole tau protein interacts with thioflavin-S or the peptide VQIVYK, an increase in both aggregation and phosphorylation occurs.     

The Gαq/phospholipase Cβ signaling system represses tau aggregation

Alzheimer's disease is typified by calcium dysfunction and neurofibrillary tangles of tau aggregates along with mitotic proteins. Using PC12 cells as a model system, we determined whether the Gαq/PLCβ/ calcium signaling pathway impacts the manifestation of Alzheimer's disease. Down-regulating PLCβ significantly increases tau protein expression and causes a large increase in tau aggregation. Stimulating Gαq to activate PLCβ results in a modest reduction in tau aggregation while inhibiting PLCβ activity results in a modest enhancement of tau aggregation. These results suggest that PLCβ may effect tau aggregation by an additional mechanism that is independent of its ability to transduce calcium signals. To this end, we found that a cytosolic population of PLCβ binds to a mitotic protein found in neurofibrillary tangles, CDK18, which promotes tau phosphorylation and aggregation. Taken together, our studies show that the loss of PLCβ1 can promote Alzheimer's disease by a combination of its catalytic activity and its interaction with mitotic proteins thus offering an orthogonal method to control tau aggregation.