天津城市公园灰尘重金属污染健康风险评价

分析了天津市中心城区41个代表性公园灰尘样品的重金属含量,借助健康风险评价模型,对天津市公园灰尘重金属的污染状况进行了健康风险评价。结果表明,天津市公园灰尘在不同程度上受到了重金属Cu、Pb、Cr、Cd和Ni的污染,其中,重金属Cu、Pb、Cr、Cd和Ni的含量平均值分别为113.18、63.32、103.18、1.14和40.58 mg·kg-1,均高于天津市土壤重金属元素的背景值。健康风险评价模型计算表明,人体经手-口接触行为直接摄入是公园灰尘暴露风险的主要途径,重金属日平均暴露剂量依次为手-口直接摄食剂量皮肤吸收剂量呼吸道吸入剂量。本研究的5种重金属元素对人体造成的慢性非致癌风险值依次表现为:CrPbCuNiCd,对人体不会造成危害,儿童的非致癌风险大于成人。致癌重金属的致癌风险依次为NiCrCd,均低于癌症风险阈值,尚未形成致癌风险。     

老工业搬迁区街道灰尘重金属污染物的人体健康风险评价

依据美国环保署人体健康风险评价法及地理信息系统对研究区主要道路灰尘中重金属污染物非致癌风险指数进行空间分析。街道灰尘中含有不同程度的重金属污染物, 浓度 (单位: mg⋅kg–1)最大值分别 Cu 143.00, Cd 7.10, Pb625.00, Zn 1340.00, As 24.50, Hg 1.04, Ni 120.00 和 Cr 1.48。儿童、青少年和成年重金属非致癌风险 As>Pb>Cd>Ni>Cr>Ni>Zn>Cu>Hg; 其中 , 小于 1 岁儿童重金属总暴露途径非致癌风险最高值达到 2.45, 非致癌风险区域面积占案例区总面积的 0.047%; 1 至小于 3 岁的值达 3.64, 面积比例 1.53%; 3 岁至小于 6 岁的值达 2.38, 面积比例 0.012%; 6 岁至小于 11 岁的值达 1.03, 面积比例较小。青少年和成人总非致癌风险均低于风险阀值。总体上, 搬迁后的老工业区在区域范围内未呈现致癌风险。     

白银市不同功能区土壤重金属污染特征及其健康风险评价

调查了白银市生活区、工业区、交通区、公园绿地和山区5个功能区表层土壤中重金属As、Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Ni、Pb和Zn含量,并采用单因子指数法、内梅罗综合指数法和健康风险表征模型评价重金属污染水平及对人体的健康风险。结果表明,白银市各功能区土壤Cu、Cd、Hg、Pb和Zn含量显著高于甘肃土壤背景值,且工业区土壤Cu含量超过了国家土壤质量二级标准。内梅罗综合指数表明:各功能区污染程度表现为工业区交通区公园绿地生活区山区;除山区外,各功能区受Hg、Zn、Pb和Cd污染较严重,其中以Hg污染最为严重。健康风险表征模型表明:重金属对儿童的HI(总非致癌风险)和TCR(总致癌风险)均大于成人,各功能区HI和TCR均表现为工业区、生活区交通区公园绿地山区;土壤As、Cr和Pb是各功能区非致癌风险最主要的3个贡献因子;土壤As和Cr是各功能区致癌风险最主要的2个贡献因子。     

黔西南煤矿区村寨公路边地表灰尘有害元素风险评价

为了解煤矿区周边地表灰尘有害元素(Cr、Cu、Zn、As、Cd、Pb和Ni)污染状况,采集黔西南典型煤矿区地表灰尘36份,采用美国TCLP(toxicity characteristic leaching procedure)法提取有害元素并运用内梅罗综合污染指数法及H?kanson潜在生态风险指数法对其生态风险进行了评价。结果表明:TCLP法提取的灰尘有害元素含量占元素总量质量百分比为1.73%~21.12%;内梅罗综合污染指数评价结果为:Pb重度污染,As中度污染,Cr和Cu轻度污染,Cd和Zn处于警戒级,Ni属于安全级。潜在生态风险指数(Ei)结果表明:Cd达到强生态风险等级,As达到中等水平,其他有害元素均处于轻微生态风险水平;而综合潜在生态风险指数RI值为321.85,已达到强潜在生态风险等级。同时,利用SBET(simple bioaccessibility extraction test)法提取了灰尘样品中有害元素生物可给性含量,采用美国环保署人体暴露风险评价法对灰尘有害元素经口腔摄入造成的健康风险进行了评估。结果显示:灰尘中有害元素生物可给性含量平均值为7.32%~31.06%。人体健康风险评价结果显示:儿童及成人的灰尘有害元素致癌风险指数(TCR)分别为5.91×10~(-5)和2.15×10~(-5);对人体产生可耐受的潜在致癌风险(HQ)除As外,均不构成明显风险。儿童及成人的总非致癌风险指数(HI)分别为1.30和0.16,这对儿童会产生潜在的非致癌危害。综上,研究区村寨公路边地表灰尘中Pb、As、Cd造成危害的风险大,需引起有关部门高度关注。     

西宁市城市土壤重金属分布特征及其环境风险

依据随机布点采样方式收集了西宁市城西、城中、城东、城北4个区域155个土壤样品,利用X射线荧光光谱分析仪(XRF)对土壤样品中As、Cr、Co、Cu、Pb、Sr、Zn 7种重金属含量进行测定,并对其潜在生态风险和人群健康风险进行评价。结果表明,西宁市城市土壤重金属元素除了As和Zn外,其余5种元素均超出土壤背景值。从潜在生态风险指数来看,西宁市城市土壤重金属具有中等生态风险,7种重金属平均潜在生态风险指数大小顺序为:CrAsPbCoCuSrZn。4个区域的潜在生态风险指数城北区(39.7)城中区(33.3)城东区(31.5)城西区(30.6)。从健康风险来看,手-口接触仍是造成人群健康风险的主要途径,重金属儿童非致癌暴露风险均大于成人,儿童非致癌风险为城北城中城东城西区。重金属Cr的非致癌风险最大,特别是城北区和城东区重金属Cr对儿童多途径暴露的非致癌风险已超过安全阈值1。4个区域重金属致癌暴露风险为城北城东城中城西区,且Cr在城北区致癌风险指数介于10-6~10-4,会对人体产生致癌风险,应加以特别重视并采取相应保护措施。     

沈阳市铁西区老工业搬迁区土壤多环芳烃的健康风险评价

采用美国能源部风险评估信息系统的暴露量化方法和美国环保局健康风险评估手册的风险表征方法,评估了沈阳市铁西区老工业搬迁区土壤中15种多环芳烃对户外劳作者的健康风险.沈阳市铁西区老工业搬迁区土壤中多环芳烃含量为290.9～8492.37μg·kg-1,搬迁区户外劳作者由于土壤中多环芳烃引起的非致癌危害指数范围为6.39×10-6 ～ 3.04×10-4,致癌风险范围为2.08×10-7 ～7.52×10-6,可判定对人体健康的危害较小.沈阳市铁西区老工业搬迁区致癌多环芳烃含量最高暴露点致癌风险值为7.52×10-6,未超过致癌风险水平上限(10-4),致癌风险尚在可接受范围内.多环芳烃中苯并(a)芘对综合致癌风险贡献最大,贡献率高达61.0％,应注意防范土壤中该污染物引起的健康危害.沈阳市铁西区老工业搬迁区户外劳作者受到的非致癌危害和致癌风险主要由经口摄入途径和皮肤接触途径贡献,两种途径对非致癌危害和致癌风险贡献率分别达到99％和100％,呼吸摄入引起的非致癌危害和致癌风险则相对较小.     

沈阳市采暖期与非采暖期的街道灰尘重金属暴露

分析了沈阳市采暖期和非采暖期街道灰尘重金属的空间分布特征,并利用健康风险评价模型评价了两个时期重金属对人体健康的危害。结果表明:采暖期,4种重金属Zn、Cu、Pb和Cd的平均含量分别是土壤背景值的13.23、2.87、3.68和7.35倍,非采暖期分别是土壤背景值的4.52、3.12、3.33和6.64倍;采暖期,Zn和Pb平均含量的大小顺序为居民点工业点位商业网点,Cu为工业点位商业网点居民点,Cd为工业点位居民点商业网点;非采暖期,除居民点Pb含量较高外,其他重金属含量均低于工业点位和商业网点;4种重金属的非致癌风险评价结果为采暖期PbZnCuCd,非采暖期PbCuCdZn,其值均小于1,可以认为对人体的非致癌风险较小或可以忽略。     

乌鲁木齐市区大气NO_2对居民健康风险的定量评价

目的:采用健康风险评价方法定量评价近十年乌市(乌鲁木齐市)居民暴露于大气中主要污染物NO2后的慢性健康效应,揭示NO2暴露与居民潜在健康危害的关系。方法:运用统计软件SPSS17.0对NO2与人群呼吸系统疾病、肺癌死亡率进行spearman等级相关分析;根据非致癌污染物健康风险评价公式计算乌市NO2所致的人群健康风险;由超死亡数计算公式综合定量评价NO2对人群的健康危害。结果:1.2001年~2010年乌市人群呼吸系统疾病、肺癌死亡率以及总死亡率和NO2日均暴露剂量无相关性;2.NO2所致个人终生健康危害的危险度R低于单一污染物可接受的健康危险度1.0×10-6。结论:近年来乌市NO2污染物年日平均浓度均达标,但有明显的上升趋势。有关部门应加强环境管理力度,力求减轻大气NO2的污染,保护居民生命健康。     

蒙陕大型煤矿开采区水质化学特征与健康风险

以蒙陕大型煤矿开采区地下水为研究对象,采用水质分析仪、离子色谱、原子荧光分析仪(AFS)、等离子质谱(ICP-MS)等分析仪器和方法对地下水样品的理化性质、水体主要阴阳离子和As、Hg、Cr、Cu、Cd、Pb、Zn、Ni等22种水体参数进行了测定,并运用模糊综合评价法和化学致癌物的健康风险评价模型对水质进行了评价。结果表明,蒙陕大型煤矿开采区地下深水(300 m)均属于一级水质,水质良好,危险金属污染并不明显。其主要阳离子含量总体呈现出Mg2+Na+Ca2+K+的特征,主要阴离子的含量总体呈现出SO42-Cl-NO3-F-的特征,主要的水质类型为SO4·Cl-Na型和重碳酸盐型。虽然大多危险金属对成人和儿童的致癌和非致癌风险均在可接受范围内,但危险元素Cr和As,无论成人还是儿童,其健康风险值均高于其他元素,说明Cr和As比其他元素更容易引起成人和儿童的健康风险,相比之下,危险金属Cr对儿童的致癌风险最大,而As对成人致癌风险较大。从各危险金属总体健康风险数值来看,危险元素引起成人和儿童总健康风险不容忽视,儿童总健康风险大于成人,尤其是在哈拉沟煤矿、王渠沟煤矿和瓜地湾露天煤矿区地下水危险金属总健康风险已经超过ICRP推荐的最大可接受风险值5.0×10-5a-1,应该引起高度重视。     

大兴安岭森林土壤重金属含量空间变异与污染评价

重金属是危害森林生态健康的主要污染物之一,迄今有关大兴安岭森林土壤重金属含量、空间变异和污染程度鲜见报道。本文通过野外调查采样,应用GIS空间分析技术,结合经典重金属污染评价方法,分析了大兴安岭森林土壤Cd、Cr、Pb、Cu、Zn、Ni、Hg及As含量的空间变异与污染程度。结果表明:(1)研究区8种重金属含量具有中等空间异质性,变异系数在16.67%~35.39%。Cd、Cr、Pb、Zn、Hg、As的块金值/基台值[C0/(C0+C)]25%,其空间变异主要由母质、地形等结构性变异引起,Cu和Ni的C0/(C0+C)在25%~75%,即非结构性因素人类活动对二者的影响较大。土壤重金属含量呈斑块状、条带状和岛状分布。(2)大兴安岭森林土壤8种重金属含量主要表现为累积的特征。8种重金属含量的平均值与最大值均未超过《国家土壤环境质量标准》(GB 15618—1995)二级标准限值,其中Cu、Zn、As的最大值超过一级标准,而其他5种元素的最大值均未超过一级标准。(3)地积累指数表明,土壤Cr、Pb、Ni无污染风险,其他5种元素污染风险较低。内梅罗综合污染指数表明,土壤整体质量已经处于轻污染状态。单因子潜在生态风险指数分析表明,Cu、Ni、Pb、Cr、Zn、As不具有潜在生态风险,Hg、Cd的部分样点的单因子生态风险指数Eri值存在生态风险,其中Hg的个别特征点已经达到Ⅲ级(中等风险)水平;潜在生态风险指数表明,研究区80%的样点无潜在生态风险,20%样点处于一般生态风险水平。     

Risk assessment of adenoviruses detected in treated drinking water and recreational water

AIMS: Human adenoviruses (HAds) have previously been detected in sewage and polluted river and dam water, as well as treated drinking water. The 51 serotypes of HAds cause a wide range of infections with clinical manifestations associated with the gastrointestinal, respiratory and urinary tracts, and the eyes. Water may play a meaningful role in the transmission of many of these HAd serotypes, specifically the enteric HAds which are transmitted via the faecal-oral route. The presence of these viruses in water used for drinking and recreational purposes is considered to constitute a potential health risk. In this study, the risk of infection by the group of HAds previously detected over a period of 1 year in selected drinking water supplies, as well as river and dam water used for recreational purposes, was assessed. METHODS AND RESULTS: Adenoviruses were previously detected in nine of 204 (4.41%) samples of two drinking water supplies (A and B) treated and disinfected according to international specifications, in four of 51 (7.8%) samples of river water and nine of 51 (17.7%) samples of dam water. Application of these previously published results in an exponential risk assessment model indicated an annual risk of infection of 1.01 x 10(-1) and 1.7 x 10(-1) for drinking water supplies A and B, respectively, assuming a daily consumption of 2 l day(-1). The daily risk of infection constituted by HAds in the river water was calculated as 1.71 x 10(-4), and in the dam water as 3.12 x 10(-5), assuming a consumption of 30 ml of water per day. CONCLUSIONS: The risk of infection exceeded the tolerable risk of one infection per 10 000 consumers per year proposed for drinking water. However, the results for river and dam water used for recreational purposes were within the tolerable risk of one infection per 1000 bathers per day proposed for environmental waters used for recreational purposes. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The study showed that the risk of HAd infection calculated for the drinking water supplies and the recreational water may overestimate the actual risk of infection, as conservative values were assumed for some of the variables. For a more accurate assessment of the potential risk of infection research should at least include a thorough investigation of the water consumption of individuals in South Africa, and the efficiency of recovery of the glass wool adsorption-elution method.     

Multi-Generational Drinking of Bottled Low Mineral Water Impairs Bone Quality in Female Rats

Background

Because of reproductions and hormone changes, females are more sensitive to bone mineral loss during their lifetime. Bottled water has become more popular in recent years, and a large number of products are low mineral water. However, research on the effects of drinking bottled low mineral water on bone health is sparse.

Objective

To elucidate the skeletal effects of multi-generational bottled water drinking in female rats.

Methods

Rats continuously drank tap water (TW), bottled natural water (bNW), bottled mineralized water (bMW), or bottled purified water (bPW) for three generations.

Results

The maximum deflection, elastic deflection, and ultimate strain of the femoral diaphysis in the bNW, bMW, and bPW groups and the fracture strain in the bNW and bMW groups were significantly decreased. The tibiae calcium levels in both the bNW and bPW groups were significantly lower than that in the TW group. The tibiae and teeth magnesium levels in both the bNW and bPW groups were significantly lower than those in the TW group. The collagen turnover markers PICP (in both bNW and bPW groups) were significantly lower than that in the TW group. In all three low mineral water groups, the 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D levels were significantly lower than those in the TW group.

Conclusion

Long-term drinking of low mineral water may disturb bone metabolism and biochemical properties and therefore weaken biomechanical bone properties in females. Drinking tap water, which contains adequate minerals, was found to be better for bone health. To our knowledge, this is the first report on drinking bottled low mineral water and female bone quality on three generation model.     

The microbiological quality of drinking water sold on the streets in Kumasi,Ghana

AIM: The aim of this study was to assess the microbiological quality of Ghanaian bottled and plastic-bagged drinking water sold on the streets of Metropolitan Kumasi, Ghana. METHODS AND RESULTS: Eight bottled, 88 factory-filled plastic sachet and 40 hand-filled hand-tied polythene-bagged drinking waters were examined for the presence of heterotrophic bacteria total viable counts (TVCs), indicators of faecal contamination (total coliforms, faecal coliforms and enterococci) and for lead, manganese and iron. Heterotrophic bacteria were found in all three types of water with TVCs per millilitre ranging from 1 to 460 for bottled water, 2-6.33 x 10(5) for factory-bagged sachet water and 2.33 x 10(3)-7.33 x 10(12) for hand-filled hand-tied bagged water. None of the microbial indicators of faecal contamination were detected in bottled water, whereas 4.5% of the factory-bagged sachets contained total coliforms and 2.3% faecal coliforms, and 42.5% of the hand-filled hand-tied bags contained total coliforms, 22.5% faecal coliforms and 5% enterococci. Iron was found in all three types of drinking water but at concentrations well within the WHO recommendations. Lead and manganese were not detected. CONCLUSION: Ghanaian bottled water is of good microbiological quality but some factory-bagged sachet and hand-filled hand-tied polythene-bagged drinking water are of doubtful quality. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Factory-bagged sachets and hand-filled hand-tied bags of drinking water sold in Ghana should be monitored for microbiological contamination, with the aim of raising standards in the industry and re-assuring the public.     

Annual cancer risks from chemicals in North Carolina community water systems

Motivated partly by concerns about cancer, the U.S. Congress in 1986 amended the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) by requiring that community water systems monitor 81 chemicals and remove those detected at concentrations above health-based standards. No prior research has used the resulting 30 years of monitoring data to analyze cancer risks from chemicals in US drinking water. To fill this gap, this paper uses chemical monitoring data from North Carolina's (NC's) 2,120 community water systems along with a risk assessment approach commonly applied in global burden of disease studies to quantify cancer risks of regulated chemicals in drinking water. The results indicate that 0.30% of NC cancer deaths are attributable to regulated drinking water contaminants and that the average annual individual risk is 7.2 × 10^?6. More than 99% of this risk arises from disinfection by-products, with the remaining risk mostly attributable to arsenic and alpha particle radiation. In no water system does the combined risk from chemicals other than disinfection by-products, arsenic, or alpha particles exceed 10^?4. The results suggest that regulated chemicals pose very low cancer risks and that risks from chemicals other than disinfection by-products, arsenic, and alpha particles are negligible in NC community water systems.     

Analysis of cytotoxicity and invasiveness of heterotrophic plate count bacteria (HPC) isolated from drinking water on blood media

Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria are naturally present in all aqueous environments. These bacteria undergo multiplication cycles in drinking water, especially in closed containers (bottled water) or in tap water when chlorine levels are dissipated, such as in dead ends in water mains or household plumbing. A study was undertaken to estimate health risk from these naturally occurring bacteria by the determination of cytotoxicity and invasiveness in a human enterocyte cell line. HPC bacteria were isolated from bottled and tap water samples by enumerating them under physical and chemical conditions analogous to human physiology. All HPC bacteria were examined at both log and lag phase of their growth cycles. Bacterial broth supernatant fluids were also tested to serve as critical negative controls. Naturally occurring HPC bacteria demonstrated low invasiveness and cytotoxicity with more than 95% of isolates showing equivalency to broth supernatant fluid. When showing either invasiveness or cytotoxicity, only a small number of cells from the culture were positive. Of those that were positive, log phase HPC bacteria were significantly more cytotoxic and invasive than those from stationary phase. Bacterial broth controls demonstrated varied, but often marked, cytotoxicity.     

Health risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater of coal mining area: A case study in Dingji coal mine,Huainan coalfield,China

Heavy metals enrichment in groundwater poses great ecological risks to human beings. In the present research work, a total of 59 groundwater samples from 12 sampling points in Dingji coal mine, Huainan coalfield, were collected and measured for Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni, Mn, Cr, and Fe by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The human health risk caused by heavy metals through the pathway of drinking water was evaluated and analyzed using the US Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) evaluation model. It has been found that the carcinogenic risk values were between 1.05 × 10^?5 and 3.5 × 10^?4, all exceeding the maximum acceptable level recommended by the USEPA, and the carcinogenic risk of Cr accounted for 99.67% of the total carcinogenic risk. The non-carcinogenic health risk values were all lower than the negligible level given by the USEPA, and the contribution of non-carcinogenic health risk was in the order of Cr > Zn > Cu / Pb >Mn > Fe > Cd > Ni. Among them, Cr had the largest contribution, accounting for 36% of the total non-carcinogenic risk value. In this study, the carcinogenic risk constituted 99.99% of the total health risk, indicating that the total health risk essentially consisted of carcinogenic risk. The research results suggest that much more attention should be paid to the health risk caused by Cr in the groundwater.     

Microbiological Evaluation of Household Drinking Water Treatment in Rural China Shows Benefits of Electric Kettles: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background

In rural China ~607 million people drink boiled water, yet little is known about prevailing household water treatment (HWT) methods or their effectiveness. Boiling, the most common HWT method globally, is microbiologically effective, but household air pollution (HAP) from burning solid fuels causes cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and black carbon emissions exacerbate climate change. Boiled water is also easily re-contaminated. Our study was designed to identify the HWT methods used in rural China and to evaluate their effectiveness.

Methods

We used a geographically stratified cross-sectional design in rural Guangxi Province to collect survey data from 450 households in the summer of 2013. Household drinking water samples were collected and assayed for Thermotolerant Coliforms (TTC), and physicochemical analyses were conducted for village drinking water sources. In the winter of 2013–2104, we surveyed 120 additional households and used remote sensors to corroborate self-reported boiling data.

Findings

Our HWT prevalence estimates were: 27.1% boiling with electric kettles, 20.3% boiling with pots, 34.4% purchasing bottled water, and 18.2% drinking untreated water (for these analyses we treated bottled water as a HWT method). Households using electric kettles had the lowest concentrations of TTC (73% lower than households drinking untreated water). Multilevel mixed-effects regression analyses showed that electric kettles were associated with the largest Log₁₀TTC reduction (-0.60, p<0.001), followed by bottled water (-0.45, p<0.001) and pots (-0.44, p<0.01). Compared to households drinking untreated water, electric kettle users also had the lowest risk of having TTC detected in their drinking water (risk ratio, RR = 0.49, 0.34–0.70, p<0.001), followed by bottled water users (RR = 0.70, 0.53–0.93, p<0.05) and households boiling with pots (RR = 0.74, 0.54–1.02, p = 0.06).

Conclusion

As far as we are aware, this is the first HWT-focused study in China, and the first to quantify the comparative advantage of boiling with electric kettles over pots. Our results suggest that electric kettles could be used to rapidly expand safe drinking water access and reduce HAP exposure in rural China.     

Health risk assessment of fluoride in water distribution network of Mashhad,Iran

High and low levels of fluoride in drinking waters have been considered as a major public health issue in recent years. This cross-sectional study was conducted over five consecutive years (from 2012 to 2016) in the water distribution network of Mashhad city, Iran with the objectives of determining levels of fluoride and to perform health risk assessment among residents in the study area. Water samples were taken from 30 stations and were analyzed using UV-visible spectrophotometer. The mean annual concentrations of fluoride in all stations during five years of consecutive study were lower than the respective maximum permissible limits (1.5 mg/L) in water as regulated by the WHO. The human health risk assessment was performed by calculating the chronic daily intake and hazard quotient (HQ) of fluoride through human oral intake for adults (men and women) and children for each year during a five-year study. Health risk analysis in this study presented that the non-carcinogenic risk associated with fluoride exposure through drinking water in Mashhad was mostly acceptable because the mean HQ values of fluoride were lower than 1.     

Using Ecological Risk Assessment Principles in a Source Water Protection Assessment

It has become increasingly common to apply ecological risk assessment (ERA) principles to watershed and regional scale environmental management. This article describes the application of watershed ERA principles to the development of a source water protection assessment and a strategic watershed management plan. The primary focus was on the protection of drinking water quality, a concern typically addressed by human health risk assessors. The approach emphasizes adaptations to the problem formulation phase of ERA (defining assessment endpoints, developing conceptual models and an analysis plan) suitable for watershed management planning in a multi-objective, multi-stressor context. Physical, chemical, and biological attributes were selected for primary drinking water quality assessment endpoints, and coupled with additional assessment endpoints relevant to other environmental and social management objectives. Conceptual models helped the planning team to better understand and communicate the multiple natural and human stressors in the watershed and the causal pathways by which they affected drinking water. The article provides an example of the types of adaptations that can make ERA principles suitable for watershed management related to human health goals, and illustrates the efficiency of integrating health and ecological assessments.     

Cumulative exposure and dietary risk assessment of phthalates in bottled water and bovine milk samples: A preliminary case study in Tamil Nadu,India

Exposure to phthalates may cause adverse health effects in wildlife and humans. Study on phthalates exposure and risk is limited in the Indian context. Therefore, this preliminary investigation was performed to ascertain the phthalates exposure through bottled water and milk among the Indian sub-population. Phthalates were extracted from water and milk by solid-phase and ultrasonication methods, respectively, and analysis was performed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Total phthalates in bottled water and milk were in the range of 39–7820 ng/L and 56–686 ng/g, respectively, with the highest contribution from diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). A substantial increase in phthalates concentration in bottled water was observed with increased shelf life. Total mean phthalates in packed milk (245 ng/g) and raw milk (134 ng/g) shows potential enrichment during “farm to table” process. Among phthalates, the lowest risk was expected from diethyl phthalate, whereas the highest risk was observed for DEHP with cumulative dietary exposure of 0.23 μg/kg bw/day (median). The human health risk based on tolerable daily intake and reference dose was found safe. This is the first study reporting phthalates migration in packed commodities from a developing country, India, which further warrants extensive phthalates exposure assessment to understand its effect on public health.