Livestock husbandry as a tool for carnivore conservation in Africa’s community rangelands: a case–control study

Conflict between people and wildlife is a major issue in both wildlife conservation and rural development. In African rangelands, species such as African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), lions (Panthera leo), leopards (Panthera pardus), and spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) may kill livestock and are therefore themselves killed by local pastoralists. Such conflict has led to the extirpation of these species from many areas, and also impacts the livelihoods of local livestock farmers. To investigate the possibilities for coexistence of people, livestock, and large predators in community rangelands, we measured the effectiveness of traditional livestock husbandry in reducing depredation by wild carnivores, using a case–control approach. Different measures were effective against different predator species but, overall, the risk of predator attack by day was lowest for small herds, accompanied by herd dogs as well as human herders, grazing in open habitat. By night, the risk of attack was lowest for herds held in enclosures (‘bomas’) with dense walls, pierced by few gates, where both men and domestic dogs were present. Unexpectedly, the presence of scarecrows increased the risks of attack on bomas. Our findings suggest that improvements to livestock husbandry can contribute to the conservation and recovery of large carnivores in community rangelands, although other measures such as prey conservation and control of domestic dog diseases are also likely to be necessary for some species.     

Competition and specialization in an African forest carnivore community

Globally, human activities have led to the impoverishment of species assemblages and the disruption of ecosystem function. Determining whether this poses a threat to future ecosystem stability necessitates a thorough understanding of mechanisms underpinning community assembly and niche selection. Here, we tested for niche segregation within an African small carnivore community in Kibale National Park, Uganda. We used occupancy modeling based on systematic camera trap surveys and fine‐scale habitat measures, to identify opposing preferences between closely related species (cats, genets, and mongooses). We modeled diel activity patterns using kernel density functions and calculated the overlap of activity periods between related species. We also used co‐occupancy modeling and activity overlap analyses to test whether African golden cats Caracal aurata influenced the smaller carnivores along the spatial and/or temporal axes. There was some evidence that related species segregated habitat and activity patterns. Specialization was particularly strong among forest species. The cats and genets partitioned habitat, while the mongooses partitioned both habitat and activity period. We found little evidence for interference competition between African golden cats and other small carnivores, although weak interference competition was suggested by lower detection probabilities of some species at stations where African golden cats were present. This suggests that community assembly and coexistence in this ecosystem are primarily driven by more complex processes. The studied carnivore community contains several forest specialists, which are typically more prone to localized extinction. Preserving the observed community assemblage will therefore require the maintenance of a large variety of habitats, with a particular focus on those required by the more specialized carnivores.     

What determines attitude of local people towards tiger and leopard in Nepal?

Understanding attitude of local people towards big cats is vital for conservation interventions to succeed. Taking tigers and leopards as focal species, we investigated local peoples' attitude towards four subjects—tiger, tiger conservation, leopard, and leopard conservation—considering demographic and socio-economic factors as well as past experience with such predators in Nepal's first national park and a world heritage site, Chitwan National Park. The data were collected from 414 local people using structured questionnaires and their attitude towards the four subjects determined. We performed ordinal logistic regression analysis to identify the best fitted model and significant variables affecting attitudes. While majority of the people (51%) strongly liked tigers, fewer people (38%) had similar view while it came to leopard. However, a greater proportion of people strongly agreed that the conservation of tigers (61%) and leopards (53%) is important. About 12% people had negative attitude towards both big cats. We found women and low income respondents to likely have negative attitudes and higher caste Hindus to have positive attitudes towards both big cats and their conservation. Better educated persons and the owners to larger herds of livestock only agreed on conservation of tiger but not leopard. Past experience with the predator negatively affected attitude towards tiger but not leopard. We suggest the identified cohort of people with negative attitudes be more targeted in conservation initiatives. The reasons behind the similarities and differences in peoples’ attitudes are discussed and designation of species-specific programmes for both cats is recommended.     

To a charismatic rescue: Designing a blueprint to steer Fishing Cat conservation for safeguarding Indian wetlands

Wetland conservation in the Indo-tropics can benefit from the protection of the charismatic Fishing Cat. India, supporting ∼ 40% of its known range, is a stronghold for the species. Here, using multiple information sources we outline a framework to safeguard fishing cats in India. Specifically, we a) estimated district-level Conservation priority scores (using presence records, and habitat suitability and habitat connectivity) to identify ecologically important habitats, b) estimated state-level Conservation likelihood scores assessing the success potential of any conservation intervention, c) collated district-level Conservation initiative information identifying ongoing efforts for species and/or habitat conservation. We consecutively assessed the spatial congruence between (a), (b) and (c) to delineate species’ conservation areas and corresponding action goals (blueprint). Using information on habitat suitability, we also delineated survey landscapes. Although Fishing Cat records were found in 12 Indian states, only a small proportion of the state area was identified harbouring optimal habitat for the species. Three broad habitat clusters - Terai arc, Eastern coast, and Brahmaputra floodplains - were identified, with overall high habitat connectivity. Most districts ranking high in Conservation priority scored low in Conservation likelihood. Districts with Fishing Cat presence (n = 60) were delineated into four tiers of action landscapes and the majority of districts classified as survey landscapes (n = 156) were found in the Terai arc. We use our results to recommend and discuss conservation actions for districts identified in our blueprint. Flagship species conservation approach has substantial potential to enrich wetland conservation, for which our blueprint can act as a baseline.     

WHY COMPENSATING WILDLIFE DAMAGES MAY BE BAD FOR CONSERVATION

Abstract: In an effort to attenuate human-wildlife conflict and promote conservation of charismatic megafauna, compensation programs for wildlife damages have been implemented in many countries. Compensating pastoralists and farmers for damage caused by wildlife reduces hunting pressure on wild animal populations. However, it can also lead to a decrease in efforts to prevent damage and exacerbate conflicts with wildlife. Furthermore, compensation programs increase the return to agriculture and can therefore be viewed as a subsidy toward crop and livestock production. Such subsidies can trigger agricultural expansion (and habitat conversion), an inflow of agriculture producers, and intensification of agricultural production. Each of these impacts is shown to have potentially adverse effects on the wildlife population that compensation intends to favor. In some circumstances, the net effect on the wildlife stock could be negative. This calls for a careful assessment of local ecological and economic conditions before compensation is implemented. Incentive mechanisms that are directly tied to conservation outcomes (e.g., payments to locals based on the size of the wildlife population) should be considered instead of compensation programs.     

The complexity of the conservation-development nexus in Central African national parks and the perceptions of local populations

Conservation programmes of recent decades aimed to adopt an approach that addresses biodiversity conservation goals through socio-economic tools and to better integrate the human dimension into biodiversity conservation. Yet, to analyse this complex conservation-development nexus, studying conservation perceptions of local populations are crucial to understand the dynamics and establish sound conservation-development management policies. Therefore, we aim to identify the key determinants of conservation perceptions in the Central African context in order to implement successful local and regional conservation strategies. Conservation perceptions of two national parks’ adjacent populations were examined through household surveys, adapted from the Poverty-Environment Network (PEN), in Rwanda and Republic of Congo. Outcomes were statistically analysed to identify the most important factors affecting perceptions about conservation measures. Using a nonlinear canonical correlation analysis, we found that economic factors (e.g. salary, savings, cattle size) and education positively affect conservation perceptions while ecosystem-dependent factors such as hunting and gathering other non-timber forest products have negative effects. Though, we identified a significant difference between two sites, whereby, conservation perceptions are negatively affected by bushmeat factors in Republic of Congo, and NTFP in Rwanda. In addition, our study showed that resource use and rights play a major role in communities’ perceptions and that revenue-sharing projects have a key impact on the perceptions. To ensure sound conservation and development measures, revenue-sharing schemes focusing on material benefits and alternative livelihoods may provide the best approach if participation of communities in the decision-making process is ensured. In this optic, improving education levels will raise awareness and positive perceptions of conservation measures. Development measures should target poor households as they appear to be more conservation-adverse. We conclude that in depth research on local demands for ecosystem products, relationships among stakeholders and community decision power are crucial factors to understand the complexity of the conservation-development nexus.     

Net Effects of Ecotourism on Threatened Species Survival

Many threatened species rely on ecotourism for conservation funding, but simultaneously suffer direct ecological impacts from ecotourism. For a range of IUCN-Redlisted terrestrial and marine bird and mammal species worldwide, we use population viability analyses to calculate the net effects of ecotourism on expected time to extinction, in the presence of other anthropogenic threats such as poaching, primary industries and habitat loss. Species for which these calculations are currently possible, for one or more subpopulations, include: orangutan, hoolock gibbon, golden lion tamarin, cheetah, African wild dog, New Zealand sealion, great green macaw, Egyptian vulture, and African penguin. For some but not all of these species, tourism can extend expected survival time, i.e., benefits outweigh impacts. Precise outcomes depend strongly on population parameters and starting sizes, predation, and ecotourism scale and mechanisms. Tourism does not currently overcome other major conservation threats associated with natural resource extractive industries. Similar calculations for other threatened species are currently limited by lack of basic population data.     

Factors shaping the tolerance of local Tibetan herders toward snow leopards

Snow leopards (Panthera uncia) have long co-existed with livestock herding people across Asia’s high mountains. Multiple use landscapes however imply potential competition for shared resources, livestock predation, and the risk of retaliatory killing of predators. Community-based conservation is a central pillar for supporting people’s livelihoods and safeguarding predators and their habitat. Based on the theory of planned behavior, we examined the factors that shape herders’ tolerance of snow leopards. Our questionnaire-based study was conducted in the Sanjiangyuan Region, China, encompassing four communities with varying livelihoods, experiences with livestock depredation and levels of exposure to community conservation interventions. Our results showed that respondents generally held positive views towards snow leopards, although women tended to have relatively more negative views towards snow leopards compared with men. Current household income was largely dependent on caterpillar fungus rather than livestock. Social norms around religion and the role of community leaders in our study area seemed to be the main determinants of the generally benign association of people with wildlife, overshadowing potential influences of community-based conservation interventions. Our work suggests that conservations programs will be aided through collaborations with communities and religious institutions, and that conservationists must proactively engage with women as significant actors in conservation.     

Quantitatively defining the conservation status of Natura 2000 forest habitats and improving management options for enhancing biodiversity

The main goal of Natura 2000 network is to guarantee the favourable conservation status of habitats and species ensuring European biodiversity. As a result, certain forest areas have been included in this network listed as 9230-Quercus pyrenaica habitat and 9340-Quercus ilex subsp. rotundifolia forest habitat. These areas were previously used for firewood extraction or livestock grazing and browsing. Nowadays these habitats are coppice forests with asexual regeneration, which is far from the desired conservation status. Traditional timber harvesting plans do not take account of the new objectives required for these Natura sites, which attempt to ensure biodiversity and recreational uses instead of simply focusing on timber production. This paper proposes a flexible methodology (applied to the study area “Dehesa Boyal” in ávila, Spain) for managing Natura 2000 forest sites by stands for sustainable forest management and the new requirements. The methodology has two phases. The first, “Division of the forest area into stands”, defines homogeneous patches of vegetation distinct in species composition, physiognomic structure and future management. The second, “Conservation status assessment of stands”, quantifies the conservation status of each previously classified stand considering a series of factors such as: functional health, restoration, floral richness and structure. A total value integrating the conservation status of stands is then calculated for the habitat. Both phases use Geographic Information System tools for managing information and visualizing results. The proposed methodology provides forest managers with a good knowledge of the territory and subsequently enables them to take appropriate conservation measures to maintain biodiversity.     

Rearing beneficial insects for biological control purposes in resource poor areas of africa

Biological control of insect pest and weeds using beneficial insects in resource poor areas is not very well supported. Poor funding has affected in particular the importation of classical biological control agents, quarantine, rearing, research facilities, and the research programmes. Donor agencies, commercial and semi-commercial enterprises in a number of African countries have, however, been able to contribute to biological control efforts using beneficial insects by providing some of the resources needed. This has led to biological control becoming a real possibility to control insect pests and weeds in several resource poor countries. Examples are provided of the “spin-offs” of such programmes for resource poor areas in South Africa, Zambia, Kenya, Malawi, Benin and Nigeria. Conventional insect rearing, insect conservation and habitat management as an aid to biological control programmes are discussed.     

Effects of human–livestock–wildlife interactions on habitat in an eastern Kenya rangeland

Human–livestock–wildlife interactions have increased in Kenyan rangelands in recent years, but few attempts have been made to evaluate their impact on the rangeland habitat. This study identified drivers of increased human–livestock–wildlife interactions in the Meru Conservation Area between 1980 and 2000 and their effects on the vegetation community structure. The drivers were habitat fragmentation, decline in pastoral grazing range, loss of wildlife dispersal areas and increase in livestock population density. Agricultural encroachment increased by over 76% in the western zone adjoining Nyambene ranges and the southern Tharaka area, substantially reducing the pastoral grazing range and wildlife dispersal areas. Livestock population increased by 41%, subjecting areas left for pastoral grazing in the northern dispersal area to prolonged heavy grazing that gave woody plant species a competitive edge over herbaceous life‐forms. Consequently, open wooded grassland, which was the dominant vegetation community in 1980, decreased by c. 40% as bushland vegetation increased by 42%. A substantial proportion of agro pastoralists were encountered around Kinna and Rapsu, areas that were predominantly occupied by pastoralists three decades ago, indicating a possible shift in land use in order to spread risks associated with habitat alterations.     

Conserving the Himalayan forests: approaches and implications of different conservation regimes

The conservation of Himalayan forests is big concern in view of global agenda. Many studies in this endeavor reported that the rate of forests degradation is posing a severe threat to the landscape and existing biodiversity in the Himalayas. Currently there many conservation approaches exists and of them four are widely recognized (1) Conservation through traditional religious beliefs “traditional conserved forests” (TCF); (2) Conservation through governmental planning and schemes “government conserved forests” (GCF); (3) Conservation through creation of protected areas (PAF); and (4) Conservation through community efforts “community conserved forests” (CCF). Our hypothesis in this direction says that all the conservation approaches lead to same results concerning to forest conservation. To testify our hypothesis we have studied the forests of each conservation regimes and evaluated them based on the identified indicators. We have done empirical studies and following the cloud-free satellite data were used for last three decades (such as Multi-Spectral Scanner, Linear Imaging and Self Scanning, and Enhanced Thematic Mapper ) to study a change in vegetation dynamics of the mountain forests in multi-temporal dimension. Our research concluded that community conservation approach have greater significance for biodiversity conservation and management in the Himalayan region. Here we support the model of CCF for forest ecosystem conservation, alongside the sustainable livelihood of the mountain societies. But every conservation regimes has its own importance in viewpoint of the particular objectives. Therefore, we suggests advancement and revision of PAF and GCF however, some elements of CCF can be introduced in TCF for making up it more sound in view of rapid socio-economic and cultural changes taking place in the communities. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Habitat selection of three cryptic Plecotus bat species in the European Alps reveals contrasting implications for conservation

Assessing the ecological requirements of species coexisting within a community is an essential requisite for developing sound conservation action. A particularly interesting question is what mechanisms govern the stable coexistence of cryptic species within a community, i.e. species that are almost impossible to distinguish. Resource partitioning theory predicts that cryptic species, like other sympatric taxa, will occupy distinct ecological niches. This prediction is widely inferred from eco-morphological studies. A new cryptic long-eared bat species, Plecotus macrobullaris, has been recently discovered in the complex of two other species present in the European Alps, with even evidence for a few mixed colonies. This discovery poses challenges to bat ecologists concerned with planning conservation measures beyond roost protection. We therefore tested whether foraging habitat segregation occurred among the three cryptic Plecotus bat species in Switzerland by radiotracking 24 breeding female bats (8 of each species). We compared habitat features at locations visited by a bat versus random locations within individual home ranges, applying mixed effects logistic regression. Distinct, species-specific habitat preferences were revealed. P. auritus foraged mostly within traditional orchards in roost vicinity, with a marked preference for habitat heterogeneity. P. austriacus foraged up to 4.7 km from the roost, selecting mostly fruit tree plantations, hedges and tree lines. P. macrobullaris preferred patchy deciduous and mixed forests with high vertical heterogeneity in a grassland dominated-matrix. These species-specific habitat preferences should inform future conservation programmes. They highlight the possible need of distinct conservation measures for species that look very much alike.     

Not all predators are equal: a continent‐scale analysis of the effects of predator control on Australian mammals

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The interactions between humans and mammals in Africa in relation to conservation: a review

Most human-mammal interactions are detrimental to wild mammals. In Africa, mammalian population numbers and the geographical distribution of many species have been reduced due to hunting, pastoralism, habitat modification and disease control. The importance of each of these factors depends on the species, its location and habitat, and density of the human population. In contrast, some small- and medium-sized species have benefited from human activities, and there has been an increase in the population numbers of some species in well-managed and well-protected conservation areas. There appears to be a strong negative correlation (at least for some well-studied species) between density of humans and density of mammals. Recently, several African countries, notably in southern Africa, have developed the principle of integrated rural development in which local people are involved in the planning and administration of their traditional lands. Managed conservation areas are an integral part of good land-use policies. Surveys indicate that most Africans living close to conservation areas, especially those with a higher level of education, understand and support the ideals of conservation; nevertheless it is important that the benefits of conservation and integrated development (such as money, jobs, and food) directly benefit the local people. Conservation of mammals (and all other species) in Africa in the future will only succeed if there is participation at the grass roots level, better food production in designated agricultural areas, reduction in the rate of increase of human populations, stabilization of human densities, and active programmes of conservation education.     

Effects of long‐term grazing management on sand dune vegetation of high conservation interest

Question: Can long‐term grazing management maintain and restore species‐rich sand dune plant communities within a sand dune site of high conservation interest? Location: Newborough Warren, North Wales, UK. Methods: Vegetation changes that occurred between 1987 and 2003, subsequent to grazing by domestic livestock being introduced to the site after decades with little or no stock grazing, were analysed using data collected from permanent monitoring quadrats over a 16‐year period. Results: At the plant community level, grazing brought about a shift from a tall‐grass dominated, species‐poor community to a more species‐rich community in the dry dunes, but did not change community type in dune slacks. However, at the species level, grazing enhanced the abundance of some desired perennial, annual and biennial species, graminoids and bryophytes in both habitat types. The increased frequency of positive indicator species for habitat condition suggests that grazing was beneficial for species of conservation interest. Ellenberg nitrogen (N) values decreased after grazing in dry habitats but showed no long‐term change independent of grazing, suggesting no increase in site fertility over the study period. Surprisingly, light (L) values also decreased in the dry dunes after grazing. Conclusions: Long‐term grazing management can play an important role for the conservation of dune communities and associated species. Because of its positive effects on species diversity, plant communities and habitat condition in sand dunes, livestock grazing is recommended for conservation management.     

African wolf diet,predation on livestock and conflict in the Guassa mountains of Ethiopia

The African wolf (Canis lupus lupaster) was first identified in 2011 in the Ethiopian highlands, with its status as a new species confirmed in 2015. We studied the diet of a confirmed African wolf population in the Menz‐Guassa Community Conservation Area of central Ethiopia from scat samples collected by den sites from August to November 2010. Rodents were found to be the principal food items occurring in 88.1% of scats (n = 101), followed by plant material (34.7%) and insects (21.8%). Information on reported livestock predation and ensuing conflict with the agro‐pastoral community was obtained through a questionnaire survey. Interview respondents listed the African wolf as the most serious predator of livestock, accounting for 74.6% of the reported kills (n = 492) and 78.9% of the economic loss. Over 70% of reported livestock predation occurred during the dry season (January–April). Better livestock management during this period may significantly reduce conflict. As sympatric Ethiopian wolves primarily feed on rodents, further studies on the foraging ecology, niche overlap and interspecific interactions between the two species should be studied to determine the extent of competition between the two species.     

Perceived benefits of littoral wetlands in Uganda: a focus on the Nabugabo wetlands

Wetlands, commonly called swamps in Uganda, are estimated to cover about 13% of the total land surface area (about 30,000 km²) of the country and represent a considerable ecological, social and economic value. In 1989, the Ugandan government formerly recognised that wetlands need to be conserved and contribute considerably to the National economy and rural livelihood. The present analysis is focused on the Nabugabo wetland ecosystem. Located in Central Uganda, it is an important part of the extensive system of wetlands that surround Lake Victoria. The Nabugabo wetland is a source of important resources that are basic to the local economy, including fishing, water utilization, agriculture, livestock, wetland plants for construction and more recently, tourism. Investment in the area is low and a large percentage of the local community depends on the wetland resources for basic sustenance needs. After achieving Ramsar status, demarcation and conservation activities were initiated by the local and national leaders. However, these conservation efforts have provoked conflicts between the land owners and the policy makers, in particular to the demarcation of areas for conservation In the present analysis, we examine the benefits, perceived by local leaders and community members, of the wetland and its services, as well as views towards its conservation and management. The results show that differences between the community leaders and member exist regarding the perceived benefits of the wetlands. Tourism, while providing some opportunities for local persons is not always viewed positively. Conservation activities are viewed positively but some questions remain as to whether such efforts help or hinder the local population, in particular regarding access to basic resources.     

Wetland mitigation and compensation: Canadian experience

Since Canada’s accession to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in 1981, the nation’s commitment to wetland conservation and management has increased significantly. This includes the adoption of one of the World’s first national wetland conservation policies by the Government of Canada, and the adoption of complementary policy and legislative initiatives by most of the 13 provincial and territorial jurisdictions. Numerous habitat ‘no net loss’ and environmental assessment policies, regulations and guidelines for incorporating mitigation processes into development decisions affecting wetland resources are used throughout Canada. The governments of Canada and six provinces have so far adopted wetland mitigation measures. These are in addition to comprehensive wetland fish and wildlife habitat initiatives, such as the species and habitat joint ventures delivered in Canada through the North American Waterfowl Management Plan by all jurisdictions and numerous non-government partners. This paper examines the current policies, regulations and programs, as well as past implementation experience with wetland mitigation and compensation in Canada.     

Wildlife Abundance and Diversity as Indicators of Tourism Potential in Northern Botswana

Wildlife tourism can provide economic incentives for conservation. Due to the abundance of wildlife and the presence of charismatic species some areas are better suited to wildlife tourism. Our first objective was to develop criteria based on wildlife abundance and diversity to evaluate tourism potential in the Northern Conservation Zone of Botswana. Secondly we wanted to quantify and compare tourism experiences in areas with high and low tourism potential. We used aerial survey data to estimate wildlife biomass and diversity to determine tourism potential, while data from ground surveys quantified the tourist experience. Areas used for High Paying Low Volume tourism had significantly higher mean wildlife biomass and wildlife diversity than the areas avoided for this type of tourism. Only 22% of the Northern Conservation Zone has intermediate to high tourism potential. The areas with high tourism potential, as determined from the aerial survey data, provided tourists with significantly better wildlife sightings (ground surveys) than the low tourism potential areas. Even Low Paying tourism may not be economically viable in concessions that lack areas with intermediate to high tourism potential. The largest part of the Northern Conservation Zone has low tourism potential, but low tourism potential is not equal to low conservation value. Alternative conservation strategies should be developed to complement the economic incentive provided by wildlife-based tourism in Botswana.