城市不同绿地垂直热力效应比较

城市绿地改变了城市地表面的辐射状况以及近地面大气的辐射状况,使绿地附近大气热力特性发生变化,产生绿地与非绿地之间的温度差异,形成局地小气候环流。不同类型城市绿地热力效应不同,产生的局地环流强度也存在差异,对城市生态环境的改善效果也各不相同。研究不同类型城市绿地热力特征,揭示不同类型城市绿地的小气候效应差异,将有助于城市园林绿地规划与管理,有助于改善城市生态环境。试验者在太原市区选择了3种不同的城市绿地——城市森林、灌丛、草坪。在氢气球上悬挂测绳,利用测绳上系有的温湿度记录仪对不同绿地周边温度时、空变化进行测试。通过对所得试验数据分析,得出昼间不同绿地热力变化规律以及14：00—15：30不同绿地空间温度场分布特点。结果表明：不同绿地周边都存在明显的热力效应;森林周边热力效应较其它绿地更明显,14：00—15：30冷源效应在1．5、3m高度可影响到距林缘14m处,17：00—18：30森林有明显的热源效应;灌丛和草坪的冷热源效应较森林明显减弱,影响的高度和距离也明显减小;14．00—15：30,不同绿地周边气温垂直结构中都存在一个高温中心和低温中心,说明绿地与非绿地之间应该存在着局地小气候环流。这些研究结果为进一步研究不同城市绿地小气候环流提供了依据。     

Improvement of thermal comfort indices in agroforestry systems in the southern Brazilian Amazon

Agroforestry systems can minimize heat stress and improve cattle welfare, but the influence of the forest component in microclimatic changes in the southern Amazon remains unclear. This study aimed to compare the thermal comfort indices in grass monoculture and integrated systems. The three systems were pasture under full sunlight (PFS), integrated (triple-row) livestock-forestry (ILF_T), and integrated (single-row) livestock-forestry (ILFs), across four seasons, for two years, from June 2017 to June 2019. We assessed photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), air temperature, relative humidity, black globe temperature, and wind speed. Thermal comfort indices such as temperature-humidity index (THI), black globe temperature-humidity index (BGHI), and radiant thermal load (RTL) were calculated based on microclimate data daily-collected from 8:00 to 16:00. The ILF_T mean THI (76.8) was slightly lower than ILF_S and PFS. The BGHI and RTL values decreased as shading increased (PFS > ILFs > ILF_T). The most challenging heat stress conditions for grazing animals occurred predominately during winter and autumn. In conclusion, the presence of trees in pastures of the southern Amazon improved the microclimate and, consequently, the thermal comfort indices. Agroforestry systems can foster an environment with a more suitable thermal comfort or less restrictive to animal performance, which contribute to mitigating global climate change for forage-livestock systems in Brazilian Amazon.     

物联网技术支持下的城市热环境时空变化分析

热环境是城市生态系统最为关键的大气环境要素之一,开展城市热环境研究的前提是在时空维度上获取足量的热环境参数。利用先进的物联网技术构建了在线式热环境监测设备,收集2022年10月16日至24日广州大学校园气温、风速、太阳辐射和地面温度四种热环境参数,分析小尺度下城市热环境的时空变化特征。研究结果表明:1)不同测点之间的风速特征具有一定的相关性,极个别测点的风速特征与其它测点相关性仅在0.5左右,显示其小气候的独特性;2)不同测点风速和热岛强度变化时空差异明显,即使距离靠近的测点,受邻近建筑和植被特征的影响热环境特征会有所差异,各测点的日间风速大,热岛强度较为明显,夜间风速较小,热岛强度较弱;3)地面温度与气温的相关性达0.8左右,这种相关性在夜间表现更为密切,并且这种关系受风速的影响不大。研究结果反映了城市热环境参数在小尺度上的高度异质性,并揭示了物联网技术在城市热环境监测领域的可行性、便捷性和高效性。     

The role of vegetation–microclimate feedback in promoting shrub encroachment in the northern Chihuahuan desert

Many arid and semi‐arid landscapes around the world are affected by a shift from grassland to shrubland vegetation, presumably induced by climate warming, increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, and/or changing land use. This major change in vegetation cover is likely sustained by positive feedbacks with the physical environment. Recent research has focused on a feedback with microclimate, whereby cold intolerant shrubs increase the minimum nocturnal temperatures in their surroundings. Despite the rich literature on the impact of land cover change on local climate conditions, changes in microclimate resulting from shrub expansion into desert grasslands have remained poorly investigated. It is unclear to what extent such a feedback can affect the maximum extent of shrub expansion and the configuration of a stable encroachment front. Here, we focus on the case of the northern Chihuahuan desert, where creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) has been replacing grasslands over the past 100–150 years. We use a process‐based coupled atmosphere‐vegetation model to investigate the role of this feedback in sustaining shrub encroachment in the region. Simulations indicate that the feedback allows juvenile shrubs to establish in the grassland during average years and, once established, reduce their vulnerability to freeze‐induced mortality by creating a warmer microclimate. Such a feedback is crucial in extreme cold winters as it may reduce shrub mortality. We identify the existence of a critical zone in the surroundings of the encroachment front, in which vegetation dynamics are bistable: in this zone, vegetation can be stable both as grassland and as shrubland. The existence of these alternative stable states explains why in most cases the shift from grass to shrub cover is found to be abrupt and often difficult to revert.     

Context-dependent impacts of a non-native ecosystem engineer, the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

The introduction of non-native species represents unprecedented large-scale experiments that allow us to examine ecological systems in ways that would otherwise not be possible. Invasion by novel ecological types into a community can press a system beyond the bounds normally seen and can reveal community interactions, local drivers and limits within systems that are otherwise hidden by coevolution and a long evolutionary history among local players, as well as local adaptation of species. The success of many invaders is attributed to their ability to thrive in a wide range of habitat types and physical conditions, setting the stage for direct examination of ecological impacts of a species across a range of habitat and community contexts. Bivalves are well-known ecosystem engineers, especially oysters, which are the target of wild-caught fisheries and aquaculture. The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, is grown worldwide for aquaculture, and is presently invading shores on virtually every continent. As a consequence, this non-native species is having large impacts on many systems, but the types of impacts are system specific, and greatly depend on substrate type, how physiologically stressful the environment is for intertidal zone species, and the presence of native engineering species. A novel type of engineering effect is identified for this non-native species, whereby it alters not only the physical environment, but also the thermal environment of the community it invades. The impacts of engineering by this non-native species will depend not only on whether it facilitates or inhibits species but also on the trophic level and ecological role of the species affected, and whether similar ecological types are found within the system.     

Engrained experience—a comparison of microclimate perception schemata and microclimate measurements in Dutch urban squares

Acceptance of public spaces is often guided by perceptual schemata. Such schemata also seem to play a role in thermal comfort and microclimate experience. For climate-responsive design with a focus on thermal comfort it is important to acquire knowledge about these schemata. For this purpose, perceived and “real” microclimate situations were compared for three Dutch urban squares. People were asked about their long-term microclimate perceptions, which resulted in “cognitive microclimate maps”. These were compared with mapped microclimate data from measurements representing the common microclimate when people stay outdoors. The comparison revealed some unexpected low matches; people clearly overestimated the influence of the wind. Therefore, a second assumption was developed: that it is the more salient wind situations that become engrained in people’s memory. A comparison using measurement data from windy days shows better matches. This suggests that these more salient situations play a role in the microclimate schemata that people develop about urban places. The consequences from this study for urban design are twofold. Firstly, urban design should address not only the “real” problems, but, more prominently, the “perceived” problems. Secondly, microclimate simulations addressing thermal comfort issues in urban spaces should focus on these perceived, salient situations.     

Microclimate limits thermal behaviour favourable to disease control in a nocturnal amphibian

While epizootics increasingly affect wildlife, it remains poorly understood how the environment shapes most host–pathogen systems. Here, we employ a three‐step framework to study microclimate influence on ectotherm host thermal behaviour, focusing on amphibian chytridiomycosis in fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra) infected with the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). Laboratory trials reveal that innate variation in thermal preference, rather than behavioural fever, can inhibit infection and facilitate salamander recovery under humidity‐saturated conditions. Yet, a 3‐year field study and a mesocosm experiment close to the invasive Bsal range show that microclimate constraints suppress host thermal behaviour favourable to disease control. A final mechanistic model, that estimates range‐wide, year‐round host body temperature relative to microclimate, suggests that these constraints are rule rather than exception. Our results demonstrate how innate host defences against epizootics may remain constrained in the wild, which predisposes to range‐wide disease outbreaks and population declines.     

Does the thermal environment influence vigilance behavior in dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis)? An approach using standard operative temperature

One might expect that increased thermal stress would cause wintering birds to forage faster in order to meet the increased metabolic demand. Faster foraging should, in turn, lead to a reduction in vigilance, since feeding and vigilance are mutually antagonistic activities. We examined these intuitive behavioral expectations using newly developed standard operative temperature sensors designed specifically to characterize the thermal effect of the microclimate environment (rain excluded) on wintering dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis). These sensors allowed us to distinguish the behavioral effects of thermal stress from non-thermal effects associated with micrometeorological conditions (e.g. wind noise). Our analysis indicated that neither thermal nor non-thermal aspects of the physical environment influenced the proportion of time spent vigilant by juncos. However, the rate of food ingestion (measured as pecking rate) exhibited a negative correlation with thermal stress per se. This unexpected result may reflect the effect of thermal stress on feeding posture, peripheral muscle cooling, or both. The effect of thermal stress on pecking rate was nevertheless minor in comparison to the effect of flock size, which exerted by far the largest effect on both vigilance and pecking rate. Our overall results suggest that birds experiencing thermal stress will not necessarily lower their vigilance, but rather increase feeding bout length to compensate for the greater metabolic demand. This interpretation is consistent with theoretical models of vigilance in a non-time-limited environment, and may help explain the contradictory results to date on the effect of thermal stress on vigilance.     

External temperature and distance from nearest entrance influence microclimates of cave and culvert‐roosting tri‐colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus)

Many North American bat species hibernate in both natural and artificial roosts. Although hibernacula can have high internal climate stability, they still retain spatial variability in their thermal regimes, resulting in various “microclimates” throughout the roost that differ in their characteristics (e.g., temperature and air moisture). These microclimate components can be influenced by factors such as the number of entrances, the depth of the roost, and distance to the nearest entrance of the roost. Tri‐colored bats are commonly found roosting in caves in winter, but they can also be found roosting in large numbers in culverts, providing the unique opportunity to investigate factors influencing microclimates of bats in both natural and artificial roost sites. As tri‐colored bats are currently under consideration for federal listing, information of this type could be useful in aiding in the conservation and management of this species through a better understanding of what factors affect the microclimate near roosting bats. We collected data on microclimate temperature and microclimate actual water vapor pressure (AWVP) from a total of 760 overwintering tri‐colored bats at 18 caves and 44 culverts. Using linear mixed models analysis, we found that variation in bat microclimate temperatures was best explained by external temperature and distance from nearest entrance in both caves and culverts. External temperature had a greater influence on microclimate temperatures in culverts than caves. We found that variation in microclimate AWVP was best explained by external temperature, distance from nearest entrance, and proportion from entrance (proportion of the total length of the roost from the nearest entrance) in culvert‐roosting bats. Variation in microclimate AWVP was best explained by external temperature and proportion from entrance in cave‐roosting bats. Our results suggest that bat microclimate temperature and AWVP are influenced by similar factors in both artificial and natural roosts, although the relative contribution of these factors differs between roost types.     

Extremes of human heat tolerance: life at the precipice of thermoregulatory failure

1. Human life is sustainable only below an internal temperature of roughly 42–44 °C. Yet our ability to survive at severe environmental extremes is testimony to the marvels of integrative human physiology.

2. One approach to understanding human thermoregulatory capacity is to examine the upper limits of thermal balance between man and the air environment, i.e. the maximal environmental conditions under which humans can maintain a steady-state core temperature. Heat acclimation expands the zone of thermal balance.

3. Human beings can and do, often willingly, tolerate extreme heat stresses well above these thermal balance limits. Survival in all such cases is limited to abbreviated exposure times, which in turn are limited by the robustness of the thermoregulatory response.

4. Figures are provided that relate tolerance time and the rate of change in core temperature to environmental characteristics based on data compiled from the literature.     

Birth weight and environmental heat load: a between-population analysis

Low birth weight, a major cause of infant morbidity and mortality, is caused by different factors in Western and developing-country populations. In addition to differing in terms of ethnicity, maternal size, maternal nutritional status, and disease load, developing-country and Western populations are also characterized by different environmental heat loads. Thermodynamic theory predicts that heat stress is mitigated by reduced size of both mother and offspring, and therefore generates the hypothesis that reduced birth weight may be an adaptation to environmental heat load. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that environmental heat load is associated with between-population variability in birth weight. Data on birth weight and thermal environment were obtained from the literature for 140 populations. Further data on several physical, social, and biological confounders were also collated. After adjusting for confounding factors, of which only maternal height and per capita gross domestic product were statistically significant, heat stress showed a significant inverse relationship with birth weight in 108 populations, accounting for an additional 9.6% of the between-population variance. Though based on data collected from more than one source, these results are consistent with the hypothesis that heat stress is inversely associated with birth weight, as previously reported for within-population studies. Further studies are needed to establish to what extent heat stress is a determinant of low birth weight in developing countries.     

基于计算流体力学数值模拟的城市绿地温湿效应及室外热舒适评价研究进展

近年来随着计算机与各学科领域交叉研究的发展,计算流体力学数值模拟方法在城市环境的微气候研究方面得到较多应用,为研究绿地在有限面积内更有效地实现其降温效应提供了新的思路。回顾计算流体力学（CFD）数值模拟方法在不同尺度的城市绿地温湿效应及室外热舒适度评价研究中的应用,在此基础上,总结目前存在的问题及不足,对未来该领域的研究方向提出3点展望,以期为未来城市绿地微气候研究提供参考：1）多平台与尺度扩展研究;2）微气候特征指标的综合交叉分析;3）高适配度模拟模型的及时更新。     

Radiation protection of the environment: anthropocentric and eco-centric principles

The second half of the XX century was dominated in the field of radiation protection of the environment by the anthropocentric concept stated by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). According to this concept "if man is adequately protected by radiological standards then biota are also adequately protected". At the end of the XX--beginning of the XXI centuries in the area of area of radiation protection of nature an ecocentric strategy is beginning to develop where emphasis has swung to the protection of biota in their environment. Inadequacy of ICRP's anthroposentric concept is reported. Issues are discussed such as ecological dosimetry, nonequidosal irradiation of man and biota, criteria for estimating radiation induced changes in biota and man, as well as the need to harmonize permissible exposure doses to man and biota. An urgent need is stressed to develop a single (synthetic) concept of radiation protection which simultaneously ensures protection of human health and biota well-being in their environment. This concept is to be based on the recognition of the integrity of socio-natural ecosystems where man and biota are considered as a unity.     

Influence of thermal conditions on habitat use by a rare spring‐emerging butterfly Euphydryas editha taylori

We may expect butterflies as ectotherms to have particularly active life‐history stages that occur in the warmest and lightest times of the year; however, there are temperate species that are active when climatic conditions seem unfavourable and photoperiod short, such as the Taylor's checkerspot (Euphydryas editha taylori). For such species, studies suggest that even subtle changes to microclimate can potentially impact populations. Thus, understanding how in situ variations in microclimate influence the Taylor's checkerspot butterfly could provide much needed insights into more effective management. We conducted a series of surveys that explored (i) adult habitat use, (ii) final instar larval distribution and (iii) adult movement up to and across site boundaries at two sites in Oregon, USA, in 2010 and 2011. We found that in situ habitat use by the Taylor's checkerspot butterfly was strongly influenced by microclimate. Both adult activities and final instar larvae distribution were clustered within the warmest areas of the sites. Moreover, adults did not use up to 59% and larva up to 90% of their sites, despite vegetation structure and composition being uniform. More specifically, butterfly habitat use increased with increasing ground temperatures, and we found that areas with the highest ground temperatures were more exposed to direct sunlight. Similarly, we found that butterflies tended to only move through sunlit site boundaries. We conclude that the Taylor's checkerspot is sensitive to changes in its thermal environment at fine spatial scales. Our results highlight the importance of microclimate as an indicator of habitat quality, and establishing the thermal criteria in which species of concern exists may provide valuable insights into the implications of climate change.     

山地小气候模拟研究进展

山地气候是最为复杂的气候类型之一,加上观测点少,气象资料比较缺乏,研究的难度很大,采用模型模拟的方法对山地气候进行研究是气象和生态学的交叉领域,得到气象和生态学者的广泛重视.目前,山地小气候模型模拟已得到很大的发展,作者从温度、降水、湿度、太阳辐射和风场5个方面综述了国内外在这方面的研究进展1)温度场的模拟主要是以分离-综合法改进后的多元回归法为主;2)降水模拟的方法主要有地形因子相关法(又可分为单要素、双要素、三要素和多要素)和趋势面法;3)关于湿度,一般气象站只观测水汽压和相对湿度,但一般的生态系统模型却是以水气压饱和差来表征湿度的,用湿度-辐射循环法模拟;4)太阳辐射的模拟很复杂,主要以直接辐射、散射辐射、反射辐射和总辐射分别来模拟;5)风场主要模拟方法有诊断方法和预报方法.以上对山地小气候的模型模拟总的特点为区域性强、经验性大、普适性(理论性)差.同时,我们根据实际研究工作,展望了未来山地气候中小尺度模拟研究的两个侧重点1) 今后要综合、动态地模拟山地小气候系统,用现代理论尤其是非线性理论来研究山地气候,以加强理论方面的研究;2) 加强对先进技术(例如GIS、RS等)的吸收利用.     

The effect of landscape complexity and microclimate on the thermal tolerance of a pest insect

Landscape changes are known to exacerbate the impacts of climate change. As such, understanding the combined effect of climate and landscape on agroecosystems is vital if we are to maintain the function of agroecosystems. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of agricultural landscape complexity on the microclimate and thermal tolerance of an aphid pest to better understand how landscape and climate may interact to affect the thermal tolerance of pest species within the context of global climate change. Meteorological data were measured at the landscape level, and cereal aphids (Sitobion avenae, Metopolophium dirhodum and Rhopalosiphum padi) sampled, from contrasting landscapes (simple and complex) in winter 2013/2014 and spring 2014 in cereal fields of Brittany, France. Aphids were returned to the laboratory and the effect of landscape of origin on aphid cold tolerance (as determined by CT_min) was investigated. Results revealed that local landscape complexity significantly affected microclimate, with simple homogenous landscapes being on average warmer, but with greater temperature variation. Landscape complexity was shown to impact aphid cold tolerance, with aphids from complex landscapes being more cold tolerant than those from simple landscapes in both winter and spring, but with differences among species. This study highlights that future changes to land use could have implications for the thermal tolerance and adaptability of insects. Furthermore, not all insect species respond in a similar way to microhabitat and microclimate, which could disrupt important predator–prey relationships and the ecosystem service they provide.     

Thermal gradients as control factors for leaf size variations at different altitudes in mountains

The two parameters of leaf dimension namely, length and width, show inverse correlation with the third parameter, the thickness. A thermal diffusion model is proposed which explains the inverse relationship between these and envisages that while leaf length and width are directly influenced by the microclimate the thickness is affected by the microclimate through endoclimate and energy balance in the leaves. The significance of the model is discussed in the light of its importance in assessing the survival range of plant species along the altitudinal gradient.     

Contribution of peaks of virus load to simian immunodeficiency virus pathogenesis

The mechanisms causing AIDS and subsequently death in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection are not yet fully understood. Nonetheless, correlates of accelerated progression to disease based on immunological and virological markers have been identified. The best correlate identified to date is the baseline virus load or the so-called viral set point. By focusing on a virus load measurement from a restricted time range, however, we ignore valuable information contained in the long-term profile of the virus load. Here, we investigate the relationship between virus load and survival with the aid of a statistical model. The model takes into consideration the virus load at every stage of the disease. In particular, we aim to determine the effect of peaks of virus load on disease progression. We fit our model to unique sequential viral load data of 12 simian immunodeficiency virus mac251-infected rhesus macaques which contain frequent measurements throughout the entire course of the infection until the development of simian AIDS. Our model enables us to predict the survival times of the animals more accurately than an equivalent model which considers the viral set point only. Furthermore, we find that peaks of the virus load contribute less to disease progression than phases of low virus load with the same amount of viral turnover. Our analysis implies that the total viral turnover is not the best correlate of survival. As a consequence, the direct cytopathic effects of virus replication may, by themselves, have less of an impact on disease progression than previously thought.     

The calculation from weather records of the requirement for clothing insulation

Standard meteorological measurements of dry bulb temperature, wind speed, sunshine, cloud cover and rainfall are used to calculate the clothing insulation required by man for thermal comfort under given weather conditions. The calculation is based on earlier work on the effect of weather on sensible (non-evaporative) heat loss from sheep, which used the relation between heat flow, thermal insulation and the difference between body and environmental temperatures.Clothing insulation for man is estimated in two ways: as clothing (I_c) that is impervious to the effects of wind and rain; and as the equivalent depth of sheep fleece (f_m), which is not impervious. This allows the assessment of wind chill for a range of clothing of varied penetration by wind instead of for only one type of garment.Results are given as daily means calculated from hourly measurements throughout 1973 for Plymouth (on the south coast of Britain) and Aberdeen (on the far northeast coast of Britain). Wind chill is estimated both by its effect on f_m requirement and by the fall in air temperature that would be needed to produce under still-air conditions the same demand for f_m that occurs in the actual environment. The monthly mean f_m requirement is reduced by about 40% when the effect of wind is removed. When wind chill is estimated as an equivalent fall in air temperature it approximates to 1 K per knot wind speed measured at the standard meteorological height of 10 m.