Fuzzy rule‐based decision support system for evaluation of long‐established forest restoration projects

Although the importance of monitoring and evaluation of restoration actions is increasingly acknowledged, availability of accurate, quantitative monitoring data is very rare for most restoration areas, particularly for long‐established restoration projects. We propose using fuzzy rule‐based expert systems to evaluate the degree of success of restoration actions when available information on project results and impacts largely relies on expert‐based qualitative assessments and rough estimates of quantitative values. These systems use fuzzy logic to manage the uncertainty present in the data and to integrate qualitative and quantitative information. To illustrate and demonstrate the potential of fuzzy rule‐based systems for restoration evaluation, we applied this approach to seven forest restoration projects implemented in Spain between 1897 and 1952, using information compiled in the REACTION database on Mediterranean forest restoration projects. The information available includes both quantitative and expert‐based qualitative data, and covers a wide variety of indicators grouped into technical, structural, functional, and socioeconomic criteria. The fuzzy rule‐based system translates expert knowledge of restoration specialists and forest managers into a set of simple logic rules that integrate information on individual indicators into more general evaluation criteria. The rule‐based approach proposed here can be readily applicable to any kind of restoration project, provided that some information, even if vague and uncertain, is available for a variety of assessment indicators. The evaluation of long‐established forest restoration projects implemented in Spain revealed important asymmetries in the degree of restoration success between technical, structural, functional, and socioeconomic criteria.     

Developing a vision for improved monitoring and reporting of riparian restoration projects

Representatives from agencies involved in natural resource management in the Murray‐Darling Basin gathered for a workshop in November 2010 to develop a vision for improved monitoring and reporting of riparian restoration projects. The resounding message from this workshop was that the effectiveness of riparian restoration depends on having sound, documented and agreed evidence on the ecological responses to restoration efforts. Improving our capacity to manage and restore riparian ecosystems is constrained by (i) a lack of ecological evidence on the effects of restoration efforts, and (ii) short‐termism in commitment to restoration efforts, in funding of monitoring and in expected time spans for ecosystem recovery. Restoration at the effective spatial scope will invariably require a long‐term commitment by researchers, funding agencies, management agencies and landholders. To address the knowledge gaps that constrain riparian restoration in the Basin, participants endorsed four major fields for future research: the importance of landscape context to restoration outcomes; spatio‐temporal scaling of restoration outcomes; functional effects of restoration efforts; and developing informative and effective indicators of restoration. To improve the monitoring and restoration of riparian zones throughout the Basin, participants advocated an integrated approach: a hierarchical adaptive management framework that incorporates long‐term ecological research.     

A new era in forest restoration monitoring

Monitoring ecological restoration has been historically dependent on traditional inventory methods based on detailed information obtained from field plots. New paradigms are now needed to successfully achieve restoration as a large‐scale, long‐lasting transformative process. Fortunately, advances in technology now allow for unprecedented shifts in the way restoration has been planned, implemented, and monitored. Here, we describe our vision on how the use of new technologies by a new generation of restoration ecologists may revolutionize restoration monitoring in the coming years. The success of the many ambitious restoration programs planned for the coming decade will rely on effective monitoring, which is an essential component of adaptive management and accountability. The development of new remote sensing approaches and their application to a restoration context open new avenues for expanding our capacity to assess restoration performance over unprecedented spatial and temporal scales. A new generation of scientists, which have a background in remote sensing but are getting more and more involved with restoration, will certainly play a key role for making large‐scale restoration monitoring a viable human endeavor in the coming decade—the United Nations' decade on ecosystem restoration.     

Benefits of hyperspectral remote sensing for tracking plant invasions

Aim We aim to report what hyperspectral remote sensing can offer for invasion ecologists and review recent progress made in plant invasion research using hyperspectral remote sensing. Location United States. Methods We review the utility of hyperspectral remote sensing for detecting, mapping and predicting the spatial spread of invasive species. We cover a range of topics including the trade‐off between spatial and spectral resolutions and classification accuracy, the benefits of using time series to incorporate phenology in mapping species distribution, the potential of biochemical and physiological properties in hyperspectral spectral reflectance for tracking ecosystem changes caused by invasions, and the capacity of hyperspectral data as a valuable input for quantitative models developed for assessing the future spread of invasive species. Results Hyperspectral remote sensing holds great promise for invasion research. Spectral information provided by hyperspectral sensors can detect invaders at the species level across a range of community and ecosystem types. Furthermore, hyperspectral data can be used to assess habitat suitability and model the future spread of invasive species, thus providing timely information for invasion risk analysis. Main conclusions Our review suggests that hyperspectral remote sensing can effectively provide a baseline of invasive species distributions for future monitoring and control efforts. Furthermore, information on the spatial distribution of invasive species can help land managers to make long‐term constructive conservation plans for protecting and maintaining natural ecosystems.     

Long-Term Monitoring and Evaluation of the Lower Red River Meadow Restoration Project, Idaho, U.S.A.

Although public and financial support for stream restoration projects is increasing, long‐term monitoring and reporting of project successes and failures are limited. We present the initial results of a long‐term monitoring program for the Lower Red River Meadow Restoration Project in north‐central Idaho, U.S.A. We evaluate a natural channel design’s effectiveness in shifting a degraded stream ecosystem onto a path of ecological recovery. Field monitoring and hydrodynamic modeling are used to quantify post‐restoration changes in 17 physical and biological performance indicators. Statistical and ecological significance are evaluated within a framework of clear objectives, expected responses (ecological hypotheses), and performance criteria (reference conditions) to assess post‐restoration changes away from pre‐restoration conditions. Compared to pre‐restoration conditions, we observed ecosystem improvements in channel sinuosity, slope, depth, and water surface elevation; quantity, quality, and diversity of in‐stream habitat and spawning substrate; and bird population numbers and diversity. Modeling documented the potential for enhanced river–floodplain connectivity. Failure to detect either statistically or ecologically significant change in groundwater depth, stream temperature, native riparian cover, and salmonid density is due to a combination of small sample sizes, high interannual variability, external influences, and the early stages of recovery. Unexpected decreases in native riparian cover led to implementation of adaptive management strategies. Challenges included those common to most project‐level monitoring—isolating restoration effects in complex ecosystems, securing long‐term funding, and implementing scientifically rigorous experimental designs. Continued monitoring and adaptive management that support the establishment of mature and dense riparian shrub communities are crucial to overall success of the project.     

A Comparison of Remote Sensing and Ground-Based Methods for Monitoring Wetland Restoration Success

Abstract Efficient and accurate vegetation sampling techniques are essential for the assessment of wetland restoration success. Remotely acquired data, used extensively in many locations, have not been widely used to monitor restored wetlands. We compared three different vegetation sampling techniques to determine the accuracy associated with each method when used to determine species composition and cover in restored Pacific coast wetlands dominated by Salicornia virginica (perennial pickleweed). Two ground‐based techniques, using quadrat and line intercept sampling, and a remote sensing technique, using low altitude, high resolution, color and color infrared photographs, were applied to estimate cover in three small restoration sites. The remote technique provided an accurate and efficient means of sampling vegetation cover, but individual species could not be identified, precluding estimates of species density and distribution. Aerial photography was determined to be an effective tool for vegetation monitoring of simple (i.e., single‐species) habitat types or when species identities are not important (e.g., when vegetation is developing on a new restoration site). The efficiency associated with these vegetation sampling techniques was dependent on the scale of the assessment, with aerial photography more efficient than ground‐based sampling methods for assessing large areas. However, the inability of aerial photography to identify individual species, especially mixed‐species stands common in southern California salt marshes, limits its usefulness for monitoring restoration success. A combination of aerial photography and ground‐based methods may be the most effective means of monitoring the success of large wetland restoration projects.     

When is Open‐endedness Desirable in Restoration Projects?

A low‐intervention approach to restoration that also allows restoration outcomes to be framed as trajectories of ecosystem change can be described as “open‐ended” restoration. It is an approach which recognizes that long‐term ecosystem behavior involves continual change at small and large spatial and temporal scales. There are a number of situations in which it is appropriate to adopt an open‐ended approach to restoration including: in remote and large areas, where ecological limiting factors will be changed by future climates, where antecedent conditions cannot be replicated, where there are novel starting points for restoration, where restoration relies strongly on processes outside the restoration area, in inherently dynamic systems, where costs are high and where the public demands “wildness.” Where this approach is adopted managers need to explain the project and deal with public expectations and public risk. Monitoring biotic and abiotic components of the project are very important as an open‐ended approach does not equate to “abandon and ignore it.”     

Putting it back: Woody debris in young restoration plantings to stimulate return of reptiles

Despite active investment in restoration, some habitat features can be slow to develop on formerly degraded land and can consequently pose persistent barriers to the re‐establishment of specialist species. Coarse woody debris (CWD) is a critical resource for a whole suite of animal taxa but remains an underappreciated component of some forest ecosystems and restoration activities. The extent to which recovery of animal communities can be accelerated through artificial supplementation of woody debris is poorly understood especially for highly diverse tropical forest systems. Here, we report early results from an experiment designed to manipulate CWD in young restoration plantings (0–7 year old) in tropical north‐east Australia for the purposes of facilitating re‐establishment of rainforest reptiles. After 1 year, we demonstrate that CWD addition within restoration plantings adjacent to remnant forest can increase the local abundance of reptiles and promote colonisation of the log‐specialist Prickly Skink (Gnypetoscincus queenslandiae). These preliminary results, however, are based on observations of just 44 individual reptiles encompassing seven species. Ongoing monitoring will elucidate longer‐term outcomes to enable a proper evaluation of when and where CWD addition might be most beneficial in realising restoration goals.     

The Effects of Peatland Restoration on Water‐Table Depth,Elemental Concentrations,and Vegetation: 10 Years of Changes

We studied the effects of restoration on water‐table depth (WTD), element concentrations of peat and vegetation composition of peatlands drained for forestry in southern Finland. The restoration aimed to return the trajectory of vegetation succession toward that of undisturbed systems through the blockage of ditches and the removal of trees. Permanent plots established on a bog and a fen were sampled 1 year before, and 1, 2, 3, and 10 years after the restoration. The restoration resulted in a long‐term rise of the water‐table in both peatlands. Ten years after restoration, the mineral element concentrations (Ca, K, Mg, Mn, and P) of peat corresponded to those reported from comparable pristine peatlands. In particular, the increase of K and Mn concentrations at both sites suggests the recovery of ecosystem functionality in terms of nutrient cycling between peat and plants. The restoration resulted in the succession of plant communities toward the targeted peatland vegetation of wetter condition at both sites. This was evident from the decreased abundance of species benefiting from drainage and the corresponding increase of peatland species. However, many species typical of pristine peatlands were missing 10 years after restoration. We conclude that the restoration led to a reversal of the effects of drainage in vegetation and studied habitat conditions. However, due to the slow recovery of peatland ecosystems and the possibility that certain failures in the restoration measures may become apparent only after extended time periods, long‐term monitoring is needed to determine whether the goals of restoration will be met.     

The Value of Long‐Term Assessment of Restoration: Support from a Seagrass Investigation

The importance of judging success of restoration studies over extended time periods has been repeatedly voiced but convincing information to justify increased monitoring is generally unavailable. Building on Bell et al. (2008), we investigated the development of areal coverage of the seagrass, Halodule wrightii, as a metric for assessing the outcome of a restoration effort conducted near Tampa Bay, Florida, U.S.A., over 7 years, thereby expanding the timescale over which a subtropical seagrass restoration project was evaluated for success. In each of 12 plots, 500 planting units of H. wrightii were introduced in 2002, and the seagrass cover level documented annually through 2009. Although only low‐moderate levels of H. wrightii cover were recorded after 3 years, a rapid increase to high coverage levels was evident in many plots after 2006 and sustained through 2009. Plots that supported only low levels of seagrass cover initially remained poor performers, 4–7 years post‐planting. By 2008, substantial seagrass spillover, contiguous with over 75% of plots, was recorded. When both within‐plot coverage and spillover were considered, seagrass restoration success was attained 6 years after initiation. Our findings provide an example of comparatively longer‐term monitoring of a restoration effort leading to reversal of an earlier evaluation of project success. Moreover, unique information on H. wrightii temporal dynamics emerged from the 7 year study, further illustrating the value of long‐term assessment of restoration. Extending the duration of post‐planting surveys of seagrass coverage may address multiple needs as it advances the field of seagrass restoration .     

Biodiversity monitoring by community‐based restoration groups in New Zealand

In recent decades, community groups have transformed habitat restoration, pest control and species translocations in New Zealand. Large areas of wild New Zealand benefit hugely from ongoing management by community‐based restoration groups. Areas near cities and towns have especially good access to pools of keen volunteers. Community groups are involved in monitoring progress with their work, as well as monitoring biodiversity changes in general at their project sites. New tools powered by modern technologies are creating the opportunity for New Zealand's community volunteers to play a transformative role in biodiversity monitoring for either purpose. These tools are reducing the resources and expertise required for species detection and identification. Smartphones with cameras, GPS, audio recorders and data apps make it easier than ever to record species observations. Crowd‐sourced identification of species in photographs and sounds loaded onto NatureWatch NZ allow volunteers to make observations of a much wider range of taxa than just common birds and trees. Realising this potential requires community groups, scientists and their institutions to collaborate in building and maintaining simple, accessible monitoring systems that (i) require and promote standard monitoring methods, (ii) provide efficient data entry in standard formats, (iii) generate automated results of use to community groups and (iv) facilitate public sharing of data to contribute to regional, national and global biodiversity monitoring. Some New Zealand monitoring systems developed recently to assist community‐based restoration groups with monitoring mammalian predator control are good examples of this approach. Making this happen at a large scale across many community groups and taxa requires increased and coordinated long‐term institutional support for monitoring systems and training.     

Quantification of Restoration Success Using Complex Systems Concepts and Models

Concepts and models from complex systems theory are introduced to help expand the approaches to quantify restoration success in ecology. Main points are illustrated using case studies. These include (1) recovery and restoration trajectories may be complex (nonlinear, unpredictable, and leading to multiple attractors), and thus knowledge of well‐known model trajectories from complex systems theory may be useful; (2) modeling may be inevitable, as complete and long‐term observation of recovery pathways are rarely possible; (3) holistic views (e.g., community level as opposed to population‐level) may be necessary to understand governing processes in restoration and recovery.     

Optimising long‐term monitoring projects for species distribution modelling: how atlas data may help

Long‐term biodiversity monitoring data are mainly used to estimate changes in species occupancy or abundance over time, but they may also be incorporated into predictive models to document species distributions in space. Although changes in occupancy or abundance may be estimated from a relatively limited number of sampling units, small sample size may lead to inaccurate spatial models and maps of predicted species distributions. We provide a methodological approach to estimate the minimum sample size needed in monitoring projects to produce accurate species distribution models and maps. The method assumes that monitoring data are not yet available when sampling strategies are to be designed and is based on external distribution data from atlas projects. Atlas data are typically collected in a large number of sampling units during a restricted timeframe and are often similar in nature to the information gathered from long‐term monitoring projects. The large number of sampling units in atlas projects makes it possible to simulate a broad gradient of sample sizes in monitoring data and to examine how the number of sampling units influences the accuracy of the models. We apply the method to several bird species using data from a regional breeding bird atlas. We explore the effect of prevalence, range size and habitat specialization of the species on the sample size needed to generate accurate models. Model accuracy is sensitive to particularly small sample sizes and levels off beyond a sufficiently large number of sampling units that varies among species depending mainly on their prevalence. The integration of spatial modelling techniques into monitoring projects is a cost‐effective approach as it offers the possibility to estimate the dynamics of species distributions in space and over time. We believe our innovative method will help in the sampling design of future monitoring projects aiming to achieve such integration.     

Restoration and Science: A Practitioner/Scientist's View from Rare Habitat Restoration at a Southern California Preserve

Researchers reexamining the relationship between restoration science and practice report a continuing scientist‐practitioner gap. As a land manager with scientific training, I offer my perspective of the chasm and describe a restoration practice infused with as much science as the realities of limited budget and time allow. The coastal sage scrub (CSS) restoration project at Starr Ranch, a 1,585 ha Audubon preserve in southern California, combines non‐chemical invasive species control, restoration, and applied research. Our practices evolve from modified scientific approaches and the scientific literature. Results from experiments with non‐optimum replication (on effects of seed rates, soil tamping, and timing of planting) nonetheless had value for management decisions. A critical practice came from academic research that encouraged cost‐effective passive restoration. Our passive restoration monitoring data showed 28–100% total native cover after 3–5 years. Another published study found that restoration success in semiarid regions is dependent on rainfall, a finding vital for understanding active restoration monitoring results that showed a range of 0–88% total native cover at the end of the first season. Work progresses through a combination of applied research, a watchful eye on the scientific literature, and “ecological intuition” informed by the scientific literature and our own findings. I suggest that it is less critical for academic scientists to address the basic questions on technique that are helpful to land managers but rather advocate practitioner training in methods to test alternative strategies and long‐term monitoring.     

Landscape Pattern Dynamics and Mechanisms during Vegetation Restoration: A Multiscale,Hierarchical Patch Dynamics Approach

The spatial pattern of vegetation changes during ecological restoration, and these changes are affected by the process of restoration. The objective of this study was to integrate the pattern and mechanism of forest restoration in the Dinghushan Nature Reserve (DNR), Guangdong, China, based on data from remote sensing and long‐term field observations. We studied the pattern dynamics of three main forest types and their underlying mechanisms during restoration following a multiscale, hierarchical patch dynamics framework that integrates population, community, and landscape processes. Remote sensing data were used to determine the changes in landscape pattern during different periods of forest restoration from 1978 to 2006. At the landscape scale, the number, area, and perimeter of the needle/broad‐leaved mixed forest (MF) and the evergreen broad‐leaved forest (BF) increased, whereas those of the tropical needle‐leaved forest (NF) decreased during succession. Our analysis based on long‐term field observations indicated that the change rate of NF was lower than that of MF during 1981–1996, but became much higher during 1996–2007. The rate of change in landscape pattern and the progression of succession stages were consistent with each other. Our results also showed that species regeneration and community succession are the biological basis of forest landscape dynamics during vegetation restoration. Landscape pattern analysis allowed us to show “what” happened during vegetation restoration and “where,” and population and community analysis indicated “why” and “how” it happened.     

Eco‐evolutionary dynamics in restored communities and ecosystems

Recent ecological studies have revealed that rapid evolution within populations can have significant impacts on the ecological dynamics of communities and ecosystems. These eco‐evolutionary dynamics (EED) are likely to have substantial and quantifiable effects in restored habitats over timescales that are relevant for the conservation and restoration of small populations and threatened communities. Restored habitats may serve as “hotspots” for EED due to mismatches between transplanted genotypes and the restored environment, and novel interactions among lineages that do not share a coevolutionary history, both of which can generate strong selection for rapid evolutionary change that has immediate demographic consequences. Rapid evolution that influences population dynamics and community processes is likely to have particularly large effects during the establishment phase of restoration efforts. Finally, restoration activities and their associated long‐term monitoring programs provide outstanding opportunities for using eco‐evolutionary experimental approaches. Results from such studies will address questions about the effects of rapid evolutionary change on the ecological dynamics of populations and interacting species, while simultaneously providing critical, but currently overlooked, information for conservation practices.     

Large‐scale,long‐term trends in British river macroinvertebrates

Rivers are among the world's most modified ecosystems, with poor water quality representing a prominent problem for over 200 years, especially in urban areas. In Western Europe, however, industrial decline, tighter regulation and improved wastewater treatment have combined over recent decades to create conditions conducive to extensive restoration and positive biological change. Here, we evaluate the river macroinvertebrate fauna of England and Wales in relation to water quality, physical habitat and climate over almost two decades. We predicted that biological recovery would be characterized by: (i) greater taxon richness and prevalence of pollution‐sensitive taxa, (ii) larger changes in more heavily urbanized catchments, and (iii) temporal trends in assemblage structure that correlated with improving water quality. Family level richness increased on average by nearly 20% during 1991–2008, accompanied by a widespread shift towards taxa characteristic of well‐oxygenated and less polluted waters. Changes were largest in the most urbanized catchments. A combination of natural gradients and anthropogenic pressures explained the variation among sites, whereas temporal changes correlated with improving water quality and variations in discharge. Positive trends were not universal, however, and there was localized deterioration in some streams draining upland areas and in the lowland south east. Our results are consistent with a large‐scale ecological recovery of English and Welsh rivers since 1990, probably continuing a trend from the mid‐20th century. Based on these results, we suggest: (i) freshwater communities are resilient to long‐term anthropogenic pressures, (ii) biodiversity benefits can arise from investment and long‐term restoration intended largely to enhance ecosystem services such as drinking water and sanitary concerns, and (iii) long‐term monitoring data collected for statutory purposes–based in this case on nearly 50 000 samples–can address scientific questions at spatial and temporal extents seldom achieved in research programmes.     

Recovery of plant communities after ecological restoration of forestry‐drained peatlands

Ecological restoration is expected to reverse the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Due to the low number of well‐replicated field studies, the extent to which restoration recovers plant communities, and the factors underlying possible shortcomings, are not well understood even in medium term. We compared the plant community composition of 38 sites comprising pristine, forestry‐drained, and 5 or 10 years ago restored peatlands in southern Finland, with special interest in understanding spatial variation within studied sites, as well as the development of the numbers and the abundances of target species. Our results indicated a recovery of community composition 5–10 years after restoration, but there was significant heterogeneity in recovery. Plant communities farthest away from ditches were very similar to their pristine reference already 10 years after restoration. In contrast, communities in the ditches were as far from the target as the drained communities. The recovery appears to be characterized by a decline in the number and abundance of species typical to degraded conditions, and increase in the abundance of characteristic peatland species. However, we found no increase above the drained state in the number of characteristic peatland species. Our results suggest that there is a risk of drawing premature conclusions on the efficiency of ecological restoration with the current practice of short‐term monitoring. Our results also illustrate fine‐scale within‐site spatial variability in the degradation and recovery of the plant communities that should be considered when evaluating the success of restoration. Overall, we find the heterogeneous outcome of restoration observed here promising. However, low recovery in the number of characteristic species demonstrates the importance of prioritizing restoration sites, and addressing the uncertainty of recovery when setting restoration targets. It appears that it is easier to eradicate unwanted species than regain characteristic species by restoration.     

Long‐term effects of prairie restoration on plant community structure and native population dynamics

The key to restoring degraded grassland habitats is identifying feasible and effective techniques to reduce the negative impacts of exotic species and promote self‐sustaining native populations. It is often difficult to extend monitoring of restoration efforts to evaluate long‐term success, but doing so is essential to understanding how initial outcomes change over time. To assess how initial treatment effects persist, we revisited degraded patches of Pacific Northwest prairie habitat 6 years after experimental restoration efforts ceased. We evaluated plant community composition to determine the lasting effects of supplemental native seeding and disturbance treatments (burning, mowing, and herbicide to reduce exotic species). We tracked the persistence of seeded species and measured spread of their populations to evaluate suitability of species for restoration and the ability of the habitat to support native plant populations. We found that plots that received supplemental seeding continued to exhibit higher richness of native species than those left unseeded, and that both seeding and disturbance treatments could positively influence native species abundance over the long term. The initially observed effects of disturbance treatments on reducing exotic grass abundance had diminished, highlighting the importance of long‐term monitoring and ongoing control of exotic species. Nevertheless, these treatments significantly influenced the population trajectories of 4 out of 8 seeded native species. There was evidence of spatial advance of most seeded species. Results from extended monitoring confirm that dispersal limitation of native species and difficulties maintaining the reduction of exotic grasses continue to be major barriers to success in restoration of invaded grasslands.     

Across the grain: Multi-scale map comparison and land change assessment

Changes in the spatial distribution of land cover and land use can have significant impacts on ecological processes at multiple scales; estimating these changes provides critical data for both monitoring and understanding land-use effects on these processes. One approach to mapping landcover changes, particularly useful over longer periods of time, is comparison of existing landcover maps, (post-classification change analysis). The accuracy of these maps is often unknown and varies depending on data sources and interpretation techniques; therefore, separating change on the ground from differences attributable to sensors and methods is both critical and problematic. Through a novel map comparison method applying major axis regression at multiple spatial grains of analysis, this study partitioned accuracy into components of bias and precision in comparing maps, which aided selection of an optimal analytical grain size. Comparisons between contemporaneous maps showed the magnitude and distribution of error alone, while between-period analyses indicated both cumulative map error and change on the ground. These methods enable exploration of the nature of error and identification of differences between maps, while accounting for the imprecision and bias inherent in the source documents. Mapping landcover change delineates landscapes under recent disturbance pressure, and these measures are more effective as performance indicators for broad-scale evaluation of natural heritage policies and habitat restoration initiatives when error in the data is identified and accounted for.