正常猕猴与树鼩神经系统和免疫系统组织中大麻素与阿片受体的表达

为应用猕猴和树鼩动物模型研究毒品成瘾对神经/免疫系统的影响提供基础数据,对大麻素及阿片受体在正常猕猴和树鼩神经系统和免疫系统的表达进行初步确定.采集正常猕猴和树鼩新鲜组织(皮质、小脑、脑干、海马、脊髓、脾脏),应用半定量逆转录PCR和实时定量PCR的方法检测大麻素与阿片受体mRNA在猕猴和树鼩各组织中的表达情况.猕猴脑部各区包括脾脏均表达大麻索受体1(CNR1),而大麻素受体2(CNR2)只表达于脾脏内.三类阿片受体中,mu(μ)受体表达最为广泛,在以上各组织中均有表达;delta(δ)受体表达的组织最少,只在海马表达;kappa(κ)受体表达介于两者之间,分别在皮质、小脑、脑干、脊髓中表达.在树鼩组织中,CNR1和CNR2表达于整个大脑重要脑区中,且CNR1表达量高于同一区域内CNR2表达的鼍:脾脏中CNR2的表达较高,而CNR1不表达.三类阿片受体只有检测到μ受体在脑部与脾脏表达,且在各个脑区的表达量明显高于脾脏的表达量;δ体和κ受体在被检各个组织中均无表达.总体而言,两种大麻素受体在猕猴和树鼩体内表达情况与人类和鼠的情况类似,而三类阿片受体在猕猴体内表达情况与人类吏为接近.猕猴和树鼩可能可用于人类毒品成瘾的研究;猕猴在某些神经受体的表达更接近人类,其在研究毒品成瘾的机理和对免疫系统的影响方面仍有不可替代的地位.     

GEO芯片分析联合网络药理学探讨五味子-枸杞子保护放射性肝损伤的机制研究CSCD

利用转录组学、网络药理学和分子对接的技术预测五味子-枸杞子保护放射性肝损伤的活性成分、作用靶点及作用机制。通过中药系统药理学数据库与分析平台(TCMSP)筛选出五味子-枸杞子主要活性成分,从五味子中筛选出14个活性成分,枸杞子中筛选出25个活性成分,核心成分主要为槲皮素、黄豆黄素和去氧紫草素;通过GeneCards、在线人类孟德尔遗传数据库获得辐射损伤的靶点基因,利用UniProt对所获得的基因进行校正,共同关键靶点共66个,利用Cytoscape 3.8.0软件构建药物-活性成分-关键靶点-放射性肝损伤调控网络,将活性成分与疾病共同靶点上传至String数据库,构建药物靶蛋白-放射性肝损伤蛋白相互作用(PPI)网络,根据度值筛选关键核心靶点为CASP3、EGFR、ESR1;对关键靶点进行功能富集分析及通路富集分析,五味子-枸杞子活性成分主要参与化学致癌-受体激活、脂质与动脉粥样硬、PI3K-Akt、MAPK、凋亡等信号通路;分子对接结果提示3个活性成分与靶蛋白结合能力较强。本研究初步发现五味子-枸杞子可能通过槲皮素、黄豆黄素和去氧紫草素调节化学致癌-受体激活、脂质与动脉粥样硬、PI3K-Akt、MAPK、凋亡等多个信号通路发挥保护放射性肝损伤的作用。     

基于HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS技术的蒲公英化学成分分析及其抗癌机制的网络药理学研究

为了探究蒲公英主要成分,分析其抗癌的可能机制及作用靶点,借助HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS技术对蒲公英提取物进行分析,利用SwissADME、Swiss Target Prediction和GeneCards数据库获取蒲公英主要活性成分和抗癌的作用靶点,通过String在线数据库构建靶蛋白相互作用网络,并利用DVIAD在线数据库对关键靶点进行GO和KEGG富集分析。最终从蒲公英提取物中共鉴定出29个化合物,主要包括有机酸类、黄酮类等化学成分,筛选到10个活性成分,成分-疾病的共同靶点84个。网络分析显示,主要活性成分为槲皮素、木犀草素、芹菜素等,关键靶点为AKT1、EGFR、SRC、ESR1、PTGS2、MMP9、KDR、MMP2、PIK3R1,并且涉及氧化-还原、负调控凋亡、蛋白质自磷酸化、ATP结合、蛋白激酶活性、蛋白丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶活性、酶结合等过程,和癌症通路、癌症蛋白聚糖、PI3K-Akt信号通路等通路。综上,蒲公英是通过多成分、多靶点、多途径来发挥抗癌作用的。     

CCR5及其拮抗剂的研究进展

趋化因子CCR5,作为G蛋白偶联因子超家族(GPCR)成员的细胞膜蛋白,是HIV-1入侵机体细胞的主要辅助受体之一。以CCR5为靶点的HIV-1受体拮抗剂越来越受关注,主要有趋化因子衍生物、非肽类小分子化合物、单克隆抗体、肽类化合物等四类。这些抗病毒活性强、高亲和力的CCR5拮抗剂,已有一部分进入了临床试验阶段。本文对近年来CCR5拮抗剂的相关研究进展进行综述。     

人趋化因子受体CCR3与β-arrestin相互作用研究

G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors,GPCRs)主要负责介导细胞内外跨膜信号转导功能,是重要的药物靶点.β-arrestin作为GPCRs行使功能的重要途径之一,其对调节GPCRs信号转导过程有重要意义.但目前对于β-arrestin如何与GPCRs相互作用并调控其信号转导功能尚不十分清楚.本文以趋化因子受体3 (CC chemokine receptor 3,CCR3)为研究对象,构建了β-arrestin与CCR3的共表达体系,利用激光共聚焦荧光成像与荧光共振能量转移(fluorescence resonance energy transfer,FRET)技术研究了β-arrestin与CCR3在活细胞水平的相互作用,利用RNAi和趋化实验考察了β-arrestin对CCR3稳转细胞趋化行为的调控作用,并在体外利用石英晶体微天平(quartz crystal microbalance,QCM)技术测定了β-arrestin突变体(R169E)与CCR3之间结合常数.结果显示,趋化因子CCL11 (chemokine C-C motif ligan...     

基于网络药理学清肺排毒汤治疗新冠肺炎的物质基础及作用机制研究

本研究运用网络药理学方法研究清肺排毒汤治疗新冠肺炎(COVID-19)的多成分、多靶点、多通路的作用机制,旨在为相关基础研究及临床应用提供依据。首先利用TCMSP数据库根据OB≥30%及DL≥0.18为筛选条件,筛选清肺排毒汤中活性成分302个及相关作用靶点148个,通过GeneCards数据库筛选COVID-19相关作用靶点362个,经Venn分析得到交集靶点23个。接着利用Cytoscape软件的CentiScaPe插件分析得到显著有效化合物10个和关键靶点5个,进一步构建网络拓扑图。通过对显著有效化合物和关键靶点的分子对接,结果显示,分子间的结合能力和相互作用能力较强。最后通过R软件的ClusterProfiler包对关键靶点做GO富集和KEGG通路富集分析,显著有效化合物中槲皮素、木犀草素、柚皮素、山奈酚、黄芩素等具有不同程度的止咳、祛痰、消炎、抗病毒等功效,关键靶点主要被富集在IL-17、Tuberculosis、TNF、MAPK、Th17、Pertussis等144个相关信号通路上,涉及磷酸酶结合、MAP激酶活性、细胞因子受体结合等28个生物学功能调控机体代谢、免疫调节、炎症反应等生理过程,根据以上结果,认为清肺排毒汤的活性成分对COVID-19的治疗具有多靶点、多途径的调节作用。     

新型靶向化合物——植物大麻素的生物合成途径及 研究进展

植物大麻素是具有生物活性的一系列萜类化合物的总称,被认为是大麻的专有成分。具有主要药理活性的植物大麻素为Δ~9-四氢大麻酚(Δ~9-tetrahydrocannabinol,Δ~9-THC)和大麻二酚(Cannabidiol,CBD),均以内源性大麻素受体为靶点,通过激活内源性大麻素系统而参与人体许多生理病理过程,具有广泛的治疗潜力。目前,Δ~9-THC、CBD及其类似物或组合制剂,已用于治疗癫痫、癌症化疗患者的呕吐、多发性硬化症痉挛和缓解神经性疼痛以及晚期癌症患者的疼痛。随着对Δ~9-THC和CBD应用价值的深度发掘和药用标准化制剂需求量增加,Δ~9-THC和CBD在制药工业中实现规模化生产迫在眉睫。通过综述近年来植物大麻素的药理学研究进展,植物大麻素生物合成途径和关键酶的作用机制以及制药工业中植物大麻素的生产策略,旨在探索利用合成生物学技术解决植物大麻素药源问题的潜力,为合成大麻素的微生物工程研发提供理论基础,促进药用大麻素的规模化生产。     

基于网络药理学和分子对接技术的天麻-川芎药对治疗高血压作用机制研究CSCD

借助网络药理学和分子对接探究天麻-川芎药对治疗高血压活性成分的靶点和作用机制。通过中药系统药理学数据库(TCMSP),限制口服生物利用度和类药性范围获取天麻、川芎两味药的活性成分及靶点。通过Drugbank和CTD筛选出疾病高血压靶点,借助韦恩图筛选出药对治疗疾病的共同潜在靶点;通过Cytoscape 3.2.1软件构建药对-疾病-成分-靶点的网络图,进一步用STRING数据库构建蛋白互作图,最后进行基因本体(GO)分析以及京都基因与基因组百科全书(KEGG)分析;应用Discovery Studio 4.5软件对活性成分与关键靶点进行分子对接验证。天麻-川芎药对共筛选出107个有效成分,对应1010个靶点;高血压对应得到2268个靶点;最终筛选出活性成分70个,共同靶点为83个;药对-疾病-成分-靶点调控网络包含155个节点,1217条边;GO分析,主要途径有血液循环,循环系统过程,核受体活性,转录因子活性等。KEGG分析,主要涉及神经活性配体-受体相互作用、Ca^(2+)信号通路、癌症的途径、cAMP信号通路等。分子对接显示,核心靶点与间羟基苯甲酸、油酸、亚油酸乙酯、反式β-金合欢烯和十四烷有较强的亲和力。天麻-川芎药对治疗高血压可能是通过TNF、PTGS2、EDN1等关键靶点发挥作用,同时通过调控神经活性配体-受体相互作用通路、Ca^(2+)信号通路、癌症的途径等多种通路发挥作用。初步揭示了天麻-川芎药对是通过多成分、多途径和多靶点协同治疗高血压的作用机制,为筛选治疗高血压的药物提供理论依据。     

当归补血汤治疗糖尿病肾病潜在作用机制的网络药理学研究

采用网络药理学方法研究当归补血汤治疗糖尿病肾病(DN)的潜在物质基础和作用机制。利用TCMSP数据库筛选当归补血汤中28个活性成分以及DN相关作用靶点188个,使用Cytoscape软件构建"药物-化合物-靶点"网络图,利用CentiScaPe插件分析当归补血汤治疗DN的关键靶点,通过网络拓扑分析最终确定12个显著有效化合物和13个关键靶点,进一步使用R软件的ClusterProfiler软件包对关键靶点进行GO富集分析和KEGG通路富集分析。研究发现,当归补血汤中的活性成分如槲皮素、山奈酚、芒柄花素等显著有效化合物作用PTGS2、GABRA1、NCOA2等关键靶点调节AGE-RAGE、IL-17、HIF-1等162个相关通路上,涉及细胞因子受体结合、细胞因子活性、磷酸酶结合、丝氨酸水解酶活性、抗氧化活性、激酶调节活性等131个相关生物过程,协同发挥对DN的治疗作用。     

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry inhibitors selected on living cells from a library of phage chemokines

The chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4 are promising non-virus-encoded targets for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy. We describe a selection procedure to isolate mutant forms of RANTES (CCL5) with antiviral activity considerably in excess of that of the native chemokine. The phage-displayed library of randomly mutated and N-terminally extended variants was screened by using live CCR5-expressing cells, and two of the selected mutants, P1 and P2, were further characterized. Both were significantly more potent HIV inhibitors than RANTES, with P2 being the most active (50% inhibitory concentration of 600 pM in a viral coat-mediated cell fusion assay, complete protection of target cells against primary HIV type 1 strains at a concentration of 10 nM). P2 resembles AOP-RANTES in that it is a superagonist of CCR5 and potently induces receptor sequestration. P1, while less potent than P2, has the advantage of significantly reduced signaling activity via CCR5 (30% of that of RANTES). Additionally, both P1 and P2 exhibit not only significantly increased affinity for CCR5 but also enhanced receptor selectivity, retaining only trace levels of signaling activity via CCR1 and CCR3. The phage chemokine approach that was successfully applied here could be adapted to other chemokine-chemokine receptor systems and used to further improve the first-generation mutants reported in this paper.     

Tumor Progression Locus 2 (Tpl2) Kinase Promotes Chemokine Receptor Expression and Macrophage Migration during Acute Inflammation

In autoimmune diseases, the accumulation of activated leukocytes correlates with inflammation and disease progression, and, therefore, the disruption of leukocyte trafficking is an active area of research. The serine/threonine protein kinase Tpl2 (MAP3K8) regulates leukocyte inflammatory responses and is also being investigated for therapeutic inhibition during autoimmunity. Here we addressed the contribution of Tpl2 to the regulation of macrophage chemokine receptor expression and migration in vivo using a mouse model of Tpl2 ablation. LPS stimulation of bone marrow-derived macrophages induced early CCR1 chemokine receptor expression but repressed CCR2 and CCR5 expression. Notably, early induction of CCR1 expression by LPS was dependent upon a signaling pathway involving Tpl2, PI3K, and ERK. On the contrary, Tpl2 was required to maintain the basal expression of CCR2 and CCR5 as well as to stabilize CCR5 mRNA expression. Consistent with impairments in chemokine receptor expression, tpl2^−/− macrophages were defective in trafficking to the peritoneal cavity following thioglycollate-induced inflammation. Overall, this study demonstrates a Tpl2-dependent mechanism for macrophage expression of select chemokine receptors and provides further insight into how Tpl2 inhibition may be used therapeutically to disrupt inflammatory networks in vivo.     

Interleukin-8-mediated heterologous receptor internalization provides resistance to HIV-1 infectivity. Role of signal strength and receptor desensitization

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) entry into CD4(+) cells requires the chemokine receptors CCR5 or CXCR4 as co-fusion receptors. We have previously demonstrated that chemokine receptors are capable of cross-regulating the functions of each other and, thus, affecting cellular responsiveness at the site of infection. To investigate the effects of chemokine receptor cross-regulation in HIV-1 infection, monocytes and MAGIC5 and rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cell lines co-expressing the interleukin-8 (IL-8 or CXCL8) receptor CXCR1 and either CCR5 (ACCR5) or CXCR4 (ACXCR4) were generated. IL-8 activation of CXCR1, but not the IL-8 receptor CXCR2, cross-phosphorylated CCR5 and CXCR4 and cross-desensitized their responsiveness to RANTES (regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted) (CCL5) and stromal derived factor (SDF-1 or CXCL12), respectively. CXCR1 activation internalized CCR5 but not CXCR4 despite cross-phosphorylation of both. IL-8 pretreatment also inhibited CCR5- but not CXCR4-mediated virus entry into MAGIC5 cells. A tail-deleted mutant of CXCR1, DeltaCXCR1, produced greater signals upon activation (Ca(2+) mobilization and phosphoinositide hydrolysis) and cross-internalized CXCR4, inhibiting HIV-1 entry. The protein kinase C inhibitor staurosporine prevented phosphorylation and internalization of the receptors by CXCR1 activation. Taken together, these results indicate that chemokine receptor-mediated HIV-1 cell infection is blocked by receptor internalization but not desensitization alone. Thus, activation of chemokine receptors unrelated to CCR5 and CXCR4 may play a cross-regulatory role in the infection and propagation of HIV-1. Since DeltaCXCR1, but not CXCR1, cross-internalized and cross-inhibited HIV-1 infection to CXCR4, the data indicate the importance of the signal strength of a receptor and, as a consequence, protein kinase C activation in the suppression of HIV-1 infection by cross-receptor-mediated internalization.     

Induction of CCR7 expression in thymocytes requires both ERK signal and Ca(2+) signal.

CC chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) expression is crucial for thymocyte trafficking across the corticomedullary junction in the thymus and for lymph node homing of naive T cells. However, the induction mechanism of CCR7 expression is vastly unknown. In isolated CD4+CD8+CCR7-thymocytes, a moderate 20-h pulse stimulation with a combination of the calcium ionophore ionomycin and the protein kinase C activator phorbol myristate acetate induced CCR7 expression and CD8 downregulation. Similar changes were induced in a CD4+CD8+CCR7- T cell line upon stimulation with the same combination of reagents, but not with either one alone. These changes were inhibited by U0126, an inhibitor of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (ERKK/MEK). The transfectants expressing a constitutively active form of the MEK kinase Raf-1 became CD4+CD8+CCR7+ upon stimulation with ionomycin alone. Thus, Raf-1-mediated signals and Ca(2+)-dependent signals are essential to induce CCR7 expression in CD4+CD8+ T cells and thymocytes as well as their differentiation.     

Regulation of inflammatory chemokine receptors on blood T cells associated to the circulating versus liver chemokines in dengue fever

Little is known about the role of chemokines/chemokines receptors on T cells in natural DENV infection. Patients from DENV-2 and -3- outbreaks were studied prospectively during the acute or convalescent phases. Expression of chemokine receptor and activation markers on lymphocyte subpopulations were determined by flow cytometry analysis, plasma chemokine ligands concentrations were measured by ELISA and quantification of CCL5/RANTES(+) cells in liver tissues from fatal dengue cases was performed by immunochemistry. In the acute DENV-infection, T-helper/T-cytotoxic type-1 cell (Th1/Tc1)-related CCR5 is significantly higher expressed on both CD4 and CD8 T cells. The Th1-related CXCR3 is up-regulated among CD4 T cells and Tc2-related CCR4 is up-regulated among CD8 T cells. In the convalescent phase, all chemokine receptor or chemokine ligand expression tends to reestablish control healthy levels. Increased CCL2/MCP-1 and CCL4/MIP-1β but decreased CCL5/RANTES levels were observed in DENV-patients during acute infection. Moreover, we showed an increased CD107a expression on CCR5 or CXCR3-expressing T cells and higher expression of CD29, CD44(HIGH) and CD127(LOW) markers on CCR4-expressing CD8 T cells in DENV-patients when compared to controls. Finally, liver from dengue fatal patients showed increased number of cells expressing CCL5/RANTES in three out of four cases compared to three death from a non-dengue patient. In conclusion, both Th1-related CCR5 and CXCR3 among CD4 T cells have a potential ability to exert cytotoxicity function. Moreover, Tc1-related CCR5 and Tc2-related CCR4 among CD8 T cells have a potential ability to exert effector function and migration based on cell markers evaluated. The CCR5 expression would be promoting an enhanced T cell recruitment into liver, a hypothesis that is corroborated by the CCL5/RANTES increase detected in hepatic tissue from dengue fatal cases. The balance between protective and pathogenic immune response mediated by chemokines during dengue fever will be discussed.     

The seventh transmembrane domain of cc chemokine receptor 5 is critical for MIP-1beta binding and receptor activation: role of MET 287

CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is a high-affinity receptor for macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1beta and functions as the major coreceptor for entry of macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). To evaluate the role of transmembrane domains (TM) in the receptor function of CCR5, the seventh transmembrane domain (TM7) was examined in a series of chimeric receptor constructs including CCR5TM (CCR5 backbone/CCR5 TM7 replaced with CCR1 TM7) and mutants of CCR5TM. The CCR5TM chimera exhibited a dramatic reduction in receptor activation, as well as little or no MIP-1beta binding. Further mutational analysis revealed that Met 287 in TM7 of CCR5 is a critical molecular determinant for both MIP-1beta binding and receptor activation. Interestingly, all of the chimeric/mutated receptors were biologically active in an HIV-1 coreceptor fusion assay, demonstrating that chemokine binding is independent of HIV-1 coreceptor activity.     

Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and CCR2 interactions are required for IFN-alpha/beta-induced inflammatory responses and antiviral defense in liver

IFN-alpha/beta-mediated functions promote production of MIP-1alpha (or CCL3) by mediating the recruitment of MIP-1alpha-producing macrophages to the liver during early infection with murine CMV. These responses are essential for induction of NK cell inflammation and IFN-gamma delivery to support effective control of local infection. Nevertheless, it remains to be established if additional chemokine functions are regulated by IFN-alpha/beta and/or play intermediary roles in supporting macrophage trafficking. The chemokine MCP-1 (or CCL2) plays a distinctive role in the recruitment of macrophages by predominantly stimulating the CCR2 chemokine receptor. Here, we examine the roles of MCP-1 and CCR2 during murine CMV infection in liver. MCP-1 production preceded that of MIP-1alpha during infection and was dependent on IFN-alpha/beta effects for induction. Resident F4/80(+) liver leukocytes were identified as primary IFN-alpha/beta responders and major producers of MCP-1. Moreover, MCP-1 deficiency was associated with a dramatic reduction in the accumulation of macrophages and NK cells, as well as decreased production of MIP-1alpha and IFN-gamma in liver. These responses were also markedly impaired in mice with a targeted disruption of CCR2. Furthermore, MCP-1- and CCR2-deficient mice exhibited increased viral titers and elevated expression of the liver enzyme alanine aminotransferase in serum. These mice also had widespread virus-induced liver pathology and succumbed to infection. Collectively, these results establish MCP-1 and CCR2 interactions as factors promoting early liver inflammatory responses and define a mechanism for innate cytokines in regulation of chemokine functions critical for effective localized antiviral defenses.     

Modulation of eotaxin-3 (CCL26) in alveolar type II epithelial cells

Airway epithelial inflammation associated with emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma is regulated in part by alveolar type II cell chemokine signaling. Data suggest that resident lung cells use CCR3, CCR5 and CCR2 chemokine receptor/ligand systems to regulate the profile of leukocytes recruited in disease-associated inflammatory conditions. Thus studies were designed to test whether alveolar type II cells possess a Th1-activated CCR5-ligand system that modulates the Th2-activated CCR3/eotaxin-2 (CCL24), eotaxin-3 (CCL26) chemokine systems. The A549 alveolar type II epithelial-like cell culture model was used to demonstrate that alveolar type II cells constitutively express CCR5 which may be upregulated by MIP-1alpha (CCL3) whose expression was induced by the Th1 cytokines IL-1beta and IFN-gamma. Selective down-regulation of CCL26, but not CCL24, was observed in CCL3 and IL-4/CCL3 stimulated cells. Down-regulation was reversed by anti-CCR5 neutralizing antibody treatment. Thus, one mechanism through which Th1-activated CCCR5/ligand pathways modulate Th2-activated CCR3/ligand pathways is the differential down-regulation of CCL26 expression. Results suggest that the CCR3 and CCR5 receptor/ligand signaling pathways may be important targets for development of novel mechanism-based adjunctive therapies designed to abrogate the chronic inflammation associated with airway diseases.     

Modulation of eotaxin-3 (CCL26) in alveolar type II epithelial cells

Airway epithelial inflammation associated with emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma is regulated in part by alveolar type II cell chemokine signaling. Data suggest that resident lung cells use CCR3, CCR5 and CCR2 chemokine receptor/ligand systems to regulate the profile of leukocytes recruited in disease-associated inflammatory conditions. Thus studies were designed to test whether alveolar type II cells possess a Th1-activated CCR5-ligand system that modulates the Th2-activated CCR3/eotaxin-2 (CCL24), eotaxin-3 (CCL26) chemokine systems. The A549 alveolar type II epithelial-like cell culture model was used to demonstrate that alveolar type II cells constitutively express CCR5 which may be upregulated by MIP-1α (CCL3) whose expression was induced by the Th1 cytokines IL-1β and IFN-γ. Selective down-regulation of CCL26, but not CCL24, was observed in CCL3 and IL-4/CCL3 stimulated cells. Down-regulation was reversed by anti-CCR5 neutralizing antibody treatment. Thus, one mechanism through which Th1-activated CCCR5/ligand pathways modulate Th2-activated CCR3/ligand pathways is the differential down-regulation of CCL26 expression. Results suggest that the CCR3 and CCR5 receptor/ligand signaling pathways may be important targets for development of novel mechanism-based adjunctive therapies designed to abrogate the chronic inflammation associated with airway diseases.