Conservation priority of Italian Alpine habitats: a floristic approach based on potential distribution of vascular plant species

In the European Union, the Directive 92/43/EEC defines a number of species and habitats of community interest that are worthy to be preserved because in danger to disappear or because they are representative of the different European bio-geographical regions. In the light of the limited economic resources generally allocated to conservation efforts, there is the necessity to prioritise conservation actions in order to avoid deterioration of protected areas. To this aim, in the present study the most representative habitats of the Italian Alps are compared on the basis of vascular plant biodiversity and a conservation priority index is proposed for each habitat taking into account the potential distribution of 252 threatened vascular plant species. Rocky slopes, screes and alpine grasslands resulted to have the greatest percentage of endemic plant species so reflecting the general distributional pattern of endemic plant species at high altitudes in Eurasian mountains. The relationship between the conservation priority index and the corresponding habitat extent within the Natura 2000 network suggests that peatlands, arid grasslands, wet meadows and freshwater habitats deserve a higher priority in conservation actions. Although vascular plant biodiversity is not necessarily a surrogate of overall biodiversity of Alpine habitats, the results here reported can be used as an initial reference framework for prioritising conservation actions, so as to accomplish the provisions of Article 6 of Habitats Directive.     

Developing a classifier for the Habitats Directive grassland types in Denmark using species lists for prediction

Abstract. This paper describes the use of supervised methods for the classification of vegetation. The difference between supervised classification and clustering is outlined, with reference to their current use in vegetation science. In the paper we describe the classification of Danish grasslands according to the Habitats Directive of the European Union, and demonstrate how a supervised classification can be used to achieve a standardized and statistical interpretation within a local flora. We thereby offer a statistical solution to the legal problem of protection of certain selected habitat types. The Habitats Directive protects three types of Danish grassland habitats, whereas two remaining types fall outside protection. A classification model is developed, using available Danish grassland data, for the discrimination of these five types based on their species composition. This new Habitats Directive classification is compared to a previously published unsupervised classification of Danish grassland vegetation. An indicator species analysis is used to find significant indicator species for the three protected habitat types in Denmark, and these are compared to the characteristic species mentioned in the interpretation manual of the Habitats Directive. Eventually, we discuss the pros and cons of supervised and unsupervised classification and conclude that supervised methods deserve more attention in vegetation science.     

Land use history and site location are more important for grassland species richness than local soil properties

Lately there has been a shift in Sweden from grazing species‐rich semi‐natural grasslands towards grazing ex‐arable fields in the modern agricultural landscape. Grazing ex‐arable fields contain a fraction of the plant species richness confined to semi‐natural grasslands. Still, they have been suggested as potential target sites for re‐creation of semi‐natural grasslands. We asked to what extent does fine‐scale variation in soil conditions, management history and site location effect local plant diversity in grazed ex‐arable fields. We examined local soil conditions such as texture, pH, organic carbon, nitrogen (N) and extractable phosphate (P) and effects on plant richness in ten pairs of grazed ex‐fields and neighbouring semi‐natural grasslands in different rural landscapes. Each grassland pair where in the same paddock. A multivariate test showed that site location and land use history explained more of differences in species richness than local soil property variables. Plant species richness was positively associated to grazed ex‐fields with low pH, low N and P levels. Sites with high plant richness in semi‐natural grasslands also had more species in the adjacent grazed ex‐fields, compared to sites neighbouring less species‐rich semi‐natural grasslands. Although both soil properties and species richness were different in grazed ex‐fields compared to semi‐natural grassland, the site location within a landscape, and vicinity to species‐rich grasslands, can override effects of soil properties. In conclusion, if properly located, ex‐arable fields may be an important habitat to maintain plant diversity at larger spatio‐temporal scales and should considered as potential sites for grassland restoration.     

Implications of the spatial variability of macroinvertebrate communities for monitoring of ephemeral lakes. An example from turloughs

Turloughs, ephemeral water bodies associated with karstified limestone, are an important habitat found in the West of Ireland. They are a priority habitat under the European Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and are groundwater-dependent habitats under the European Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC; WFD). Sampling to meet the objectives of either Directive requires discrimination of inherent natural variation from anthropogenically induced disturbances and accounting for both spatial and seasonal patterns of biotic distribution. This study reports within- (submerged grassland) and between-habitat (submerged and emergent grassland) variability of macroinvertebrate communities in six turloughs. Two different habitat types were sampled from two turloughs in April 2007, and further assessment of spatial pattern in commonly found submerged grassland habitat was determined from four additional turloughs in spring 2008. While cluster analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling identified differences in macroinvertebrate community structures between habitats in one out of two turloughs, congruence of invertebrate communities was, nevertheless, greater within than among turloughs. Within-habitat variability of macroinvertebrate communities across sampling locations of submerged grassland habitat was sufficiently low so that samples collected at any location of a turlough can provide a reliable metric of the macroinvertebrate community of a turlough as a whole. A standardized submerged grassland sampling approach for routine turlough sampling is recommended as a pressure response method to fulfil the requirements of the WFD. For a comprehensive conservation assessment, however, as demanded under the EC Habitats Directive, we suggest a multi-habitat sampling approach to obtain a thorough assessment of turlough macroinvertebrate biodiversity.     

A rapid and cost-effective tool for managing habitats of the European Natura 2000 network: a case study in the Italian Alps

“Habitats” Directive 92/43/EEC is the pivotal European law for building a continental network of sites of community importance (SCIs) for nature conservation. Article 6 of such directive underlines the importance of biodiversity conservation through the realization of proper management plans. As a result, such plans are increasingly common. A management plan based on intensive field studies and monitoring activities requires time and financial resources, which are generally limited. The aim of this paper is to offer a rapid, cost-effective and scientifically based decision tool aimed to achieve GIS-based conservation strategies for habitats of EU interest within SCIs and, in general, within protected areas. As a case study, we considered species-rich Nardus grasslands (threatened by natural reconversion and intensive cattle grazing), and transition mires (threatened by pasturing and human disturbance) in a SCI in the Alps. Through a multi-criteria evaluation, we selected indicators and weights based upon our knowledge of the study area. As a result, we were able to: (a) quantify the level of existing threats, (b) suggest urgent conservation strategies, and (c) suggest future monitoring activities. Since the study area is representative of many protected areas in the Alps and the conservation topics under evaluation are frequent threats impacting habitats of EU interest, our decision model might be transferable to further areas given proper adaptation of weights to the intensity and the frequency of current threats.     

The significance of habitat continuity and current management on the compositional and functional diversity of grasslands in the uplands of Lower Saxony,Germany

There is a growing concern that land use intensification is having negative effects on semi-natural grasslands and that it leads to a general loss of biodiversity among all types of formerly extensively managed grasslands of poor to medium nutrient richness. Since the 1950s, many Central European uplands have been subject to an increase in grassland cover as a result of changes in land use practices. Using such a landscape in Lower Saxony, Germany, as a model region, we assessed environmental factors that control grassland diversity, including plant community composition, species richness and pollination trait composition. In 2007, 189 vegetation sampling sites were randomly distributed among grasslands covering some 394 ha within a 2500 ha study area. Plant communities were classified using TWINSPAN and the effects of environmental factors (soil, topography, current management and habitat continuity) were analysed by canonical correspondence analysis and regression analysis reducing for the effects of spatial autocorrelation by using principal coordinates of neighbour matrices.We found a wide range of six species-poor (<15 plant spp.) to extremely species-rich (>27 spp.) grassland types under mesic to dry site conditions, including sown, Cynosurion, Arrhenatherion and semi-natural grasslands. Grassland community composition was best explained by soil factors and species richness and pollination type composition by combined effects of current management and habitat continuity. During the 1950/60s, the extent of grassland area within the studied landscape rapidly increased to more than double its previous extent, and in 2007, grasslands comprised 16%. Natura 2000 grassland types comprised 1% of the surveyed site and medium-rich, high-nature-value grasslands a further 5%. While the number of wind-pollinated plant species was equal among all grassland types, there was a parallel decline in insect-pollinated plants and overall median species richness in the grassland communities along a gradient of increasing land use intensity (mowing, nutrient supply). Moreover, insect-pollinated plants occurring in intensively managed grasslands were found to additionally have the ability for self-pollination. Species-rich grasslands – including semi-natural grasslands and a semi-improved, species-rich Arrhenatherion community – occurred exclusively on old sites (with >100 years of habitat continuity) that had been used for traditional sheep grazing (environmental contracting). Medium-rich Arrhenatherion grasslands were established primarily on less productive, formerly arable fields (<30 years). We conclude that conservation efforts should focus on extant species-rich grassland types and should aim to implement traditional land use practices such as sheep grazing. Additional restoration efforts should focus on establishing new grasslands on less productive sites in the proximate surroundings of species-rich grasslands to facilitate seed dispersal, but nitrogen deposition should be buffered where appropriate. These measures would enhance the interaction between nature reserves and agricultural grasslands and thus improve the ecological quality of grasslands at the landscape scale.     

Bridging the gap between the Natura 2000 regional conservation status and local conservation objectives

Natura 2000 targets the sustainable conservation of Europe's biodiversity. An important cornerstone of Natura 2000 is the Habitats Directive, which is currently implemented across European member states. However, straightforward implementation is not obvious since the favourable conservation status of habitats and species needs to be achieved at the member state level, while conservation objectives need to be formulated at the protected site level. To bridge this gap, we propose to start from regional conservation objectives before site level objectives are formulated. These regional conservation objectives have the advantage of providing a framework according to which conservation objectives can be allocated both within and outside the protected sites of the Natura 2000 network. Especially since they all contribute to the national or regional conservation status. Recently, Flanders (northern Belgium) has adopted this approach and has quantified conservation objectives at the regional scale. As the current regional conservation status of habitats and species is mostly unfavourable, regional conservation objectives entail a drastic increase in area (42%) for habitats, and active conservation measures for 78% of the species. We are convinced that the method outlined here, may substantially contribute to a helpful discussion about implementing and streamlining Natura 2000 across European member states.     

Human Land use Threatens Endemic Wetland Species: The Case of Chorthippus lacustris (La Greca and Messina 1975) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in Epirus, Greece

Chorthippus lacustris is an endemic grasshopper (Orthoptera) species in Epirus, Greece. Its population status, habitat characteristics, and relation to historical and current human land use are investigated. The species has a restricted and fragmented distribution pattern. Five locations, four within Pamvotida Lake basin and one in Lake Paramythia, cover a total of 0.12 km². It is strongly dependent on wet grasslands, flooded on a seasonal basis. The greatest population density is recorded in the site with the greatest diversity of dominant plant species. Ch. lacustris is estimated to have lost 85–99% of its habitat during the last 50 years due to wetland drainage. The main threat to the species survival is further habitat loss by urbanisation around Pamvotida Lake and by land conversion to agriculture in Paramythia Lake, even though both sites belong to the Natura 2000 network. The species status is Critically Endangered and it should be listed in Annex II of the Habitat Directive (92/43/EEC) as a priority species for conservation. Restoring wet grasslands, protecting them from further urbanisation and drainage, and monitoring species population are the main measures proposed for its conservation.     

Plant community patterns in old embanked grasslands and the survival of halophytic flora

The presence of a halophytic and sub-halophytic flora in grasslands reclaimed from the sea several centuries ago on the west Atlantic coast in France appears very unusual and the reasons for its survival are still uncertain. Our objective is to document its distribution pattern and to investigate whether its persistence is related to abiotic conditions and/or management practices. Vegetation surveys were carried out in seven different sites with 26 relevés on grazed sites (15 on slopes and 10 on flats) and 11 on mown sites (six on slopes and five on flats).This flora shows some important similarity with the vegetation of recent polders and can be classified into groups of species differing by their degree of salt tolerance but also their response to management mode. It was found that halophytes are only present on very saline soils, in a situation where the level of competition with more competitive species is reduced. The sub-halophytes also required low competition on lower soil salinity. In old polders, these two groups only occurred on grazed slopes and declined or even disappeared in the absence of grazing. In exclosures, the community became strongly dominated by competitive species and the soil salinity decreased on the slopes. The maintenance of sub-halophytes in old polders seems to be mainly conditioned by competition limitation whereas halophytes showed also a strong dependency to soil salt level, two requirements, which are met on continuously grazed slopes. Grazing maintains inter-specific competition at a low level while trampling increases soil compaction. Soil compaction modifies water and salt circulation, which could explain the high level of soil conductivity observed on grazed slopes.     

Characterisation of the European Marine Sites in South West England: The Fal and Helford Candidate Special Area of Conservation (cSAC)

The Conservation (Natural Habitats, & c.) Regulations 1994 which implement the Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC) and Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) in the UK include a number of provisions for the protection of European Marine Sites (marine candidate Special Areas of Conservation (cSAC) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs)), including the requirement for competent authorities to assess the effects of new and existing consents, permissions and authorisations to ensure that they are not having an adverse effect on the integrity of the site (Regulations 48 and 50). In England and Wales site characterisation, a process which involves the collation, integration and critical evaluation of existing site knowledge, is seen by the Environment Agency (EA) and the nature conservation bodies (English Nature – EN, and the Countryside Council for Wales – CCW) as an important step towards evaluating the effects of consented discharges and activities on the interest features of EMS, and is fundamental to the development of ecosystem-based management. An on-going project, led by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom (part of the Plymouth Marine Science Partnership) in collaboration with EA, EN and CCW, sets out to characterise the impacts and risks associated with water and sediment quality in relation to the integrity and interest features of selected European Marine Sites in southwest England and Wales. Using published information and unpublished data-sets from regulatory agencies, conservation bodies, and research institutes, evidence is compiled on the links between potentially harmful activities, environmental quality and resultant biological effects, and includes an evaluation of long-term change. An overview of results is presented here for one of the UK marine sites studied, The Fal and Helford candidate SAC, highlighting the threats to biota from point-source and diffuse pollutants, together with major gaps in our understanding. Some of the priorities for new research and better integrated monitoring to address nature conservation objectives (to maintain and restore the system) are discussed.     

A test of two mechanisms proposed to optimize grassland aboveground primary productivity in response to grazing

Aims Mesic grasslands have a long evolutionary history of grazing by large herbivores and as a consequence, grassland species have numerous adaptations allowing them to respond favourably to grazing. Although empirical evidence has been equivocal, theory predicts that such adaptations combined with alterations in resources can lead to grazing-induced overcompensation in aboveground net primary production (ANPP; grazed ANPP> ungrazed ANPP) under certain conditions. We tested two specific predictions from theory. First, overcompensation is more likely to occur in annually burned grasslands because limiting nutrients that would be lost with frequent fires are recycled through grazers and stimulate ANPP. Second, overcompensation of biomass lost to grazers is more likely to occur in unburned sites where grazing has the greatest effect on increasing light availability through alterations in canopy structure.Methods We tested these nutrient versus light-based predictions in grazed grasslands that had been annually burned or protected from fire for>20 years. We assessed responses in ANPP to grazing by large ungulates using both permanent and moveable grazing exclosures (252 exclosures from which biomass was harvested from 3192 quadrats) in a 2-year study. Study sites were located at the Konza Prairie Biological Station (KPBS) in North America and at Kruger National Park (KNP) in South Africa. At KPBS, sites were grazed by North American bison whereas in KNP sites were grazed either by a diverse suite of herbivores (e.g. blue wildebeest, Burchell's zebra, African buffalo) or by a single large ungulate (African buffalo).Important findings We found no evidence for overcompensation in either burned or unburned sites, regardless of grazer type. Thus, there was no support for either mechanism leading to overcompensation. Instead, complete compensation of total biomass lost to grazers was the most common response characterizing grazing–ANPP relationships with, in some cases, undercompensation of grass ANPP being offset by increased ANPP of forbs likely due to competitive release. The capability of these very different grass-dominated systems to maintain ANPP while being grazed has important implications for energy flow, ecosystem function and the trophic dynamics of grasslands.     

Effectiveness of mowing for the flora diversity preservation: a case study of steppe-like grassland in Croatia (NATURA 2000 site)

Intensive human activities have resulted in a critical reduction of grasslands in Croatia, one of the richest Europian countries in terms of biodiversity. Sub-Pannonic steppic grasslands are very rare, only few occur in the continental part of Croatia and most of them are protected as NATURA 2000 sites. We studied vascular flora of the Sub-Pannonic stepic grassland with the aim to examine the changes in plant communities 15 years from the mowing application. Results showed that hand mowing once per year at the end of vegetation season increased the species diversity as well as the number of medium and low growth taxa. The critically endangered, nearly threatened and vulnerable species remained preserved. The occurrence of trees, shrubs and invasive species as a consequence of succession and anthropogenic influences could be important threat for steppe-like grassland flora. From a conservation point of view infrequent mowing regime could be an effective management tool, although it needs to be adapted to regional and local circumstances for maintaining high biodiversity of steppe-like grasslands and valuable plant species.     

The Reference Index Method for the Macrophyte‐BasedAssessment of Rivers – a Contribution to the Implementationof the European Water Framework Directive in Germany

The European Water Framework Directive requires ecological status classification and monitoring of surface and ground waters using biological indicators. To act as a component of the “Macrophytes and Phytobenthos” biological quality element, as demanded by the Directive, a macrophyte‐based assessment system was developed for application in river site types in Germany. Macrophyte abundance data were collected from 262 sites in 202 rivers. Seven biocoenotic river site types were established using differences in characteristic macrophyte communities reflecting ecoregion, channel width, water depth, current velocity, water hardness, and ground water influence. For four of these river site types, a macrophyte assessment system was developed, for the remaining three river site types data were insufficient for developing an assessment system. Ecological status classification of river sites is based on the calculation of a Reference Index value, in some cases supplemented by additional vegetation criteria. The Reference Index quantifies the deviation of species composition and abundance from reference conditions and classifies sites as one of the five possible ecological quality classes specified in the Directive. The assessment of long river stretches with changing river site types along its course is discussed based on an example from the Forstinninger Sempt River, southeast Germany. (© 2005 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

A comparison of the vegetation in semi-natural grasslands under different agricultural practices in Finnish and Russian Karelia

The vegetation of semi-natural grasslands under modern, cereal/forage cropping in Finnish Karelia (n = 11) and old fashioned animal husbandry in adjacent Russian Karelia (n = 11) was compared in terms of their species composition. Each grassland site was paired with one in the other country which was as similar as possible in respect to its natural conditions. The species composition indicated differences in management between the two countries. The mean number of species was 4S.S in the Finnish sites and 52.6 in the Russian sites. A total of 12 species exhibited a statistical difference in their indicator values between the two countries. Traditional grassland species (e.g. Leontodon hispidus, Dianthus deltoides ), indicating grazing, hay making and old settlement, occurred more oñen in Russian sites, while species related to nutrient enrichment and cultivation (e.g. Urtica dioica, Elymus repens ) were more characteristic of Finnish sites.     

Ecology and conservation of grassland birds in southeastern South America: a review

ABSTRACT The grasslands of southeastern South America (SESA), comprising one of the most extensive grassland ecosystems in the Neotropics, have been negatively impacted by the development of the livestock industry, arable agriculture, and forestry. SESA grasslands have a rich avifauna that includes 22 globally threatened and near‐threatened species, and many other species have suffered local population extinctions and range reductions. In addition to habitat loss and fragmentation, grassland birds in SESA are threatened by improper use of agrochemicals, unfavorable fire management regimes, pollution, and illegal capture and hunting. Studies to date have provided information about the distribution of grassland birds, the threats populations face, and the habitat requirements of some threatened species, but more information is needed concerning dispersal and migration patterns, genetics, and factors that influence habitat use and species survival in both natural and agricultural landscapes. There are few public protected areas in the region (1% of original grasslands), and many populations of threatened grassland birds are found on private lands. Therefore, efforts to preserve grassland habitat must reconcile the interests of land owners and conservationists. Current conservation efforts include establishment of public and private reserves, promotion of agricultural activities that reconcile production with biodiversity conservation, development of multilateral conservation projects across countries, and elaboration of action plans. Measures that result in significant losses to private land owners should include economic compensation, and use of economic incentives to promote agriculture and forestry in native grassland areas should be discouraged, especially in priority areas for grassland birds. Although more studies are needed, some actions, particularly habitat protection and improved management of public and private lands, should be taken immediately to improve the conservation status of grassland birds in SESA.     

Effects of land-use and climate change on grasshopper assemblages differ between protected and unprotected grasslands

Land-use and climate change are considered the major drivers of recent insect loss. Orthoptera (hereinafter termed ‘grasshoppers’) are the main arthropod consumers in grasslands and, hence, are important elements for supporting ecosystem services. However, for intensively-used agricultural landscapes, it is largely unknown to what extent both factors have affected grasshopper assemblages in protected (nature reserves) and unprotected grasslands.Here, we analysed species richness of grasshopper assemblages in protected (n = 14) and unprotected grasslands (n = 49) by comparing two surveys—one in 1995 and one in 2012—of a landscape with intensive agriculture in the NW-German Lowland. The observed changes were associated with the Community Farmland Index (CFI) and the Community Temperature Index (CTI) in order to disentangle possible effects of land-use and climate change on assemblage shifts.Between the two surveys, environmental conditions substantially changed. Summer temperatures increased by 1.1°C, and grasslands suffered from a severe loss of patches. However, the latter only occurred in unprotected grasslands. Here, 35% of the patches were converted to other biotope types, in particular maize fields as a result of the expansion of bioenergy-crop cultivation. In the grasslands still existing in 2012, irrespective of its protection status, species richness usually increased, except for species with low dispersal ability in unprotected grasslands. By contrast, the development of the CFI and CTI clearly varied between the two grassland types. In protected grasslands, neither the CFI nor the CTI changed. However, in unprotected grasslands, the CFI decreased but the CTI increased.Land-use change has led to a biotic homogenisation at the landscape level and within unprotected grassland patches. Additionally, our study highlights that the legal designation of grasslands as a nature reserve successfully prevents the conversion of grasslands. Overall, well-managed grasslands in nature reserves play a vital role for the conservation of grasshopper biodiversity.     

Using Soil 13C to Detect the Historic Presence of Schizachyrium scoparium (Little Bluestem) Grasslands on Martha's Vineyard

Abstract We used differences in soil carbon δ¹³C values between forested sites and grasslands dominated by the C₄ grass Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem) to detect the presence of former grasslands in the historical landscape of the coastal sand plain of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Soil δ¹³C was measured at (1) sites with long‐term forest or grassland vegetation and (2) sites with known histories where forest vegetation invaded grassland and where forest converted to grassland. The δ¹³C of soil under long‐term grassland was –24.1‰ at 0 to 2 cm depth and –23.4‰ at 2 to 10 cm and was enriched by 3.4‰ and 2.8‰ compared with soil under long‐term forest. In forests that invaded grasslands dominated by S. scoparium, soil δ¹³C decreased as C derived from trees replaced C from S. scoparium. This decline occurred faster in surface soils and in the light soil organic matter fraction than in the mineral soil. In forests that converted to grasslands, soil δ¹³C increased and the rate of increase was similar in surface and mineral soil and in the different soil organic matter fractions. Rates of change indicated that soil δ¹³C could be used to detect changes in vegetation involving the presence or absence of S. scoparium during the last 150 years. Application of this model to a potential grassland restoration site on Martha's Vineyard where the landscape history was not known indicated that the site was previously unoccupied by S. scoparium during this time. The δ¹³C of surface mineral soil can be useful for detecting the presence of historic S. scoparium grasslands but only in the period well after European settlement of these coastal sand plain landscapes.     

Spring densities and calling activities of Rock Ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta helvetica ) in the Austrian Alps

According to the European Bird Directive (Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979 on the conservation of wild birds), particular efforts must be made to preserve the Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta helvetica) and its habitats. Protection and management of this species require basic knowledge of the current status of each of its populations. Within the Austrian distribution range of Rock Ptarmigan, only two study sites from the inner parts of the Alps have been investigated and no data on the most eastern pre-alpine populations are available. In the present study, we conducted simultaneous counts of calling Rock Ptarmigan cocks and recorded calling activities. We calculated spring densities for alpine and pre-alpine study areas and compared them. Spring densities for different habitat types in one study area were observed and compared. Spring densities and calling activities differed between study sites, even within the most eastern border of distribution. Generally, spring densities seem to be higher in alpine habitats than in pre-alpine study sites. In one alpine study area, the highest spring densities were found for habitat patches with a heterogeneous mixture of rocky surface and dwarf pine.     

Low-Intensity Agricultural Landscapes in Transylvania Support High Butterfly Diversity: Implications for Conservation

European farmland biodiversity is declining due to land use changes towards agricultural intensification or abandonment. Some Eastern European farming systems have sustained traditional forms of use, resulting in high levels of biodiversity. However, global markets and international policies now imply rapid and major changes to these systems. To effectively protect farmland biodiversity, understanding landscape features which underpin species diversity is crucial. Focusing on butterflies, we addressed this question for a cultural-historic landscape in Southern Transylvania, Romania. Following a natural experiment, we randomly selected 120 survey sites in farmland, 60 each in grassland and arable land. We surveyed butterfly species richness and abundance by walking transects with four repeats in summer 2012. We analysed species composition using Detrended Correspondence Analysis. We modelled species richness, richness of functional groups, and abundance of selected species in response to topography, woody vegetation cover and heterogeneity at three spatial scales, using generalised linear mixed effects models. Species composition widely overlapped in grassland and arable land. Composition changed along gradients of heterogeneity at local and context scales, and of woody vegetation cover at context and landscape scales. The effect of local heterogeneity on species richness was positive in arable land, but negative in grassland. Plant species richness, and structural and topographic conditions at multiple scales explained species richness, richness of functional groups and species abundances. Our study revealed high conservation value of both grassland and arable land in low-intensity Eastern European farmland. Besides grassland, also heterogeneous arable land provides important habitat for butterflies. While butterfly diversity in arable land benefits from heterogeneity by small-scale structures, grasslands should be protected from fragmentation to provide sufficiently large areas for butterflies. These findings have important implications for EU agricultural and conservation policy. Most importantly, conservation management needs to consider entire landscapes, and implement appropriate measures at multiple spatial scales.     

Mountain grassland biodiversity: Impact of site conditions versus management type

Grasslands of the Swiss Alps provide agricultural goods, ecological services, disaster protection, and scenic beauty. We identified influences of site conditions and management type on grassland biodiversity, and specifically evaluated the effectiveness of the agri-environmental programme in the Alps. Vascular plants and grasshoppers were mapped in conventionally managed cut meadows, cut meadows of the ecological compensation programme (ECA meadows), and conventionally managed pastures (n=324). We determined climatic and topographic site conditions, quantified the degree of remoteness of all plots in GIS, and estimated the habitat diversity in the vicinity of the sampling sites. The data were analysed by discriminant analysis, rank-correlation analysis, non-parametric ANOVA, general linear models, and ANCOVA. Plant biodiversity hot spots were in economically unattractive, remote sites. These were the typical site conditions of ECA meadows. Hence we concluded that the ecological compensation programme was effectively ensuring management at these sites, and thus protecting mountain grassland plant species richness. Grasshoppers seemed not to benefit from mountain ECA meadows, which were probably often situated at the climatic limit of several species. Pastures were the most species rich management type (plants and grasshoppers), but conversion from cut grassland to pastures should be limited, as negative economic and ecological effects have been reported. We propose that the co-existence of well-managed pastures and long-term ECA meadows might best conserve mountain grassland biodiversity.