Effect of famine on fertility in a rural area of Bangladesh

Data on household socioeconomic status collected in the 1974 census and registration data on births, deaths, and migrations for the 1974-77 period from the Demographic Surveillance System of the International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh, were used to investigate the effects of the 1974-75 famine on differential fertility in a rural population of Bangladesh. Occupation of household head was used as a measure of socioeconomic status. Overall, fertility declined by 34% over the 1975-76 period and increased by 17% in 1976-77 from the 1974-75 figure. Significantly lower fertility was observed in 1975-76, irrespective of socioeconomic status, but the lower socioeconomic groups were affected more than the higher groups. Post-famine fertility was significantly higher only in the 2 middle occupation categories. The age-specific fertility rates suggest that the famine affected all age groups. The post-famine fertility was higher than that of 1974-75 in all but those aged below 20. At age 40 and over the recovery was slight. Husband-wife separation showed an increase during the famine and particularly among the lower socioeconomic groups. The males of the lower socioeconomic households migrated to other regions to obtain food for the family, thus affecting frequency of coitus. The decline in fertility may be due to several factors: deferred marriage; increase in divorces and husband-wife separations; high fetal wastage; voluntary fertility control through contraception, abstention, or induced abortion; and infecundability. An indirect measure of marriage rate indicated that fewer couples entered into marriage in 1974-75, particularly in the lower socioeconomic groups. Both the higher and lower socioeconomic groups were affected by the famine but the precise mechanisms were not the same. At this stage, it is not feasible to estimate the contribution of each factor to the fertility decline. The lower socioeconomic groups were more affected by husband-wife separations and deferred marriages; the higher socioeconomic groups were affected by mental stress and anxiety.     

Marriage and mortality: a life table analysis

This paper examines the effects of age at marriage and differential mortality of males and females on the incidence of widowhood between the sexes. Abridged life tables constructed from marital status and death registration data of a rural area of Bangladesh for the period 1974-79 were used. The difference in life expectancy between males and females varies from 0.4 to 2.2 years at the ages 0 to 65 years and over. The mortality differentials show that the probabilities of a male or a female surviving the other spouse would be approximately the same, were there no other influence. But the incidence of widows is about ten times that of widowers. Other relevant factors, under a given regime of mortality, are age at marriage and age difference between husband and wife.     

Household vulnerability to food crisis and mortality in the drought-prone areas of northern Ethiopia

This study examines the association between a household's degree of vulnerability to food crisis and the incidence of deaths using primary survey data carried out to look at the demographic consequences of drought and famine in the drought-prone areas of northern Ethiopia. Retrospective data on the occurrences of deaths within a household were collected for the period 1984 to 1994. Consistent with previous studies, the findings confirm that mortality was clustered among the age groups 1-4 and 5-9 and varied considerably by famine and non-famine years. Enormous variation in incidence of deaths was also observed by region, ethnicity and religion. Most importantly, the analysis provides substantial evidence that the level of household vulnerability to food crisis is strongly related to the number of hunger-related deaths reported in a household.     

Socioeconomic status and fertility in rural Bangladesh

Using a unique set of birth registration data from the Demographic Surveillance System of the International Center for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh, for the period 1974-77, and socioeconomic information collected in the 1974 census, fertility was studied in relation to occupation, size of dwelling, number of cows and number of boats owned. The total fertility rate was found to vary between 6 and 6.5 except in the famine year of 1975. There was no consistent relationship between fertility and education of women. The age-specific fertility rates by religion show that Muslims had higher fertility at all ages in 1974 and 1977 and at older ages in 1975 and 1976. Overall, however, fertility of Hindus is consistently lower than that of Muslims, but the relative differences are under 10%. Fertility differentials by occupation showed that the household heads who were farm laborers had relatively lower fertility compared to other occupational groups, except for the year 1977 where the families of service holders were found to have relatively lower fertility. Women in households whose heads were businessmen or farmers (owning their land) had above average fertility. In 1974, households in the business occupational groups had, on average, 1 birth more than other households. Women in households with fishermen as heads had below average fertility in 1974 and 1975, but very high fertility in 1976 and 1977. Fertility levels differed according to the type of household in which the family resided. Nuclear families had below average fertility up to the age of 35 and above average fertility at the end of the reproductive age. In the 15-19 age group, augmented families had higher fertility each year examined. The association between dwelling place and fertility is positive each year, the relative differences in fertility between the groups being largest in 1974. Positive relations were found between economic status and fertility.     

Demographic characteristics of a rural area in Kenya in 1974-80

A longitudinal, epidemiological study was carried out in a rural area of Kenya with a population of about 28,000 between 1974 and 1980. Population registration during this time showed that population growth was very high between 1974 and 1978 (4.4%/year) and much lower in 1979 and 1980 (1.1%). Natural increase was nearly as high as in Kenya as a whole (3.7%) in this period. Fertility was somewhat lower than in all Kenya (the crude birth rate was 46/1000) while mortality was substantially lower (7/1000). These rates are believed to be genuine and not due to under reporting of infant deaths. The most likely reason for these low infant mortality levels is the existence of favorable economic, social and hygienic conditions in the area compared to other parts of Kenya. The adult mortality rates are low too, in particular for the population aged 65 and over. The main reason is the overestimation of ages, in particular of women in the older age brackets, which has led to too large a denominator of the age specific rates in these age groups. Levels of temporary and permanent migration are high and probably characteristic for many parts of Kenya. Of the 19% of the registered population absent when visited by the fieldworkers, there were more males (23%) than females (14%). The % of absenteeism is higher for males between 20-59 years old, and also for females between 15 and 30. About 3% of the population is away for a short time, visiting relatives, attending weddings and funerals or occupied as traders. The large majority of absentees (14%) consists of temporary labor migrants and family members accompanying them. Many are gainfully employed in Nairobi and other towns in Kenya; some are farmers who seasonally move to another farm which they own outside the area. Others are wives and children who temporarily join their husbands, or polygamous men who are temporarily staying with another wife outside the area. All permanent movements to and from the study area, as well as within it, show that on average migration inwards and outwards balanced each other in the 7-year period. The gross migration rate is substantially higher for females than for males. This is due to family related reasons: marriage, divorce, separation. Other categories of migrants are those families who establish a new business or farm elsewhere, teachers and pastors who are transferred, and farm laborers, housemaids and servants. Poor economic conditions of 1979/80, due to a drop in coffee prices and poor harvests of coffee, maize and beans, led to more emigration and less immigration.     

The Great Chinese Famine Leads to Shorter and Overweight Females in Chongqing Chinese Population After 50 Years

This study investigated a possible association between early nutritional status during the famine, and the risk of overweight and obesity in adulthood in Chongqing Chinese population. The body weight, height, and BMI data were obtained from records of population (17,023) that had annual physical evaluations in the Public Health Center (in our hospital). Subjects born during 1956–1964 were divided into three groups: toddler group, all subjects who were born 1–3 years before the famine (1956–1958); gestational group, who were born during the famine period (1959–1961), and control group, who were born after the famine (1962–1964). The body weight and BMI were significantly higher, but the body height was significantly lower in the toddler and gestational groups (P < 0.05) in the female population as compared to the control group. The odds ratio of being overweight in females is more pronounced in the toddler group (1.48 times, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.288–1.689) than in the gestational group (1.26 times, 95% CI: 1.089–1.457). The odds ratio of being obese in females is significantly higher in the toddler group (1.46 times, 95% CI: 1.288–1.689) than the control group. For males, the famine had no impact at all on the adulthood body weight in males. The Great Chinese Famine that affected the Chongqing population during 1959–1961 leads to shorter and overweight females, and the former is a risk factor for increased BMI in Chongqing. Second, the famine seems to be producing shorter but slimmer males in Chongqing. Furthermore, toddler's and maternal's malnutrition during the famine had important late consequences on the health status.     

Inequalities in mortality during and after restructuring of the New Zealand economy: repeated cohort studies

Objectives To determine whether disparities between income and mortality changed during a period of major structural and macroeconomic reform and to estimate the changing contribution of different diseases to these disparities.Design Repeated cohort studies.Data sources 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996, and 2001 censuses linked to mortality data.Population Total New Zealand population, ages 1-74 years.Methods Mortality rates standardised for age and ethnicity were calculated for each census cohort by level of household income. Standardised rate differences and rate ratios, and slope and relative indices of inequality (SII and RII), were calculated to measure disparities on both absolute and relative scales.Results All cause mortality rates declined over the 25 year study period in all groups stratified by sex, age, and income, except for 25-44 year olds of both sexes on low incomes among whom there was little change. In all age groups pooled, relative inequalities increased from 1981-4 to 1996-9 (RIIs increased from 1.85 (95% confidence interval 1.67 to 2.04) to 2.54 (2.29 to 2.82) for males and from 1.54 (1.35 to 1.76) to 2.12 (1.88 to 2.39) for females), then stabilised in 2001-4 (RIIs of 2.60 (2.34 to 2.89) and 2.18 (1.93 to 2.45), respectively). Absolute inequalities were stable over time, with a possible fall from 1996-9 to 2001-4. Cardiovascular disease was the major contributor to the observed disparities between income and mortality but decreased in importance from 45% in 1981-4 to 33% in 2001-4 for males and from 50% to 29% for females. The corresponding contribution of cancer increased from 16% to 22% for males and from 12% to 25% for females.Conclusions During and after restructuring of the economy disparities in mortality between income groups in New Zealand increased in relative terms (but not in absolute terms), but it is difficult to confidently draw a causal link with structural reforms. The contribution of different causes of death to this inequality changed over time, indicating a need to re-prioritise health policy accordingly.     

Diarrheal Illness and Healthcare Seeking Behavior among a Population at High Risk for Diarrhea in Dhaka,Bangladesh

Diarrhea remains one of the major causes of death in Bangladesh. We studied diarrheal disease risk and healthcare seeking behavior among populations at high risk for diarrhea in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional survey conducted during April and September 2010. The prevalence of diarrhea was calculated by age-group and sex. A generalized estimating equation with logit link function was used to predict diarrheal disease risk and seeking care from a professional healthcare provider. Of 316,766 individuals, 10% were young children (<5 years). The prevalence of diarrhea was 16 per 1000 persons among all ages; young children accounted for 44 per 1000 persons. Prevalence of diarrhea was significantly higher (p=.003) among younger males (<15 years) compared to that among younger females. In contrast, prevalence of diarrhea was significantly higher (p<.0001) among older females (≥15 years) compared to that among older males. An increased risk for diarrhea was observed in young children, males, and those staying in rented houses, lower family members in the house, using non-sanitary toilets, living in the area for short times, living in a community with less educated persons, living in a community with less use of safe water source for drinking, or living close to the hospital. About 80% of those with diarrhea sought care initially from a non-professional healthcare provider. Choice of the professional healthcare provider was driven by age of the patient, educational status of the household head, and hygienic practices by the household. The study reaffirms that young children are at greater risk for diarrhea. Like other developing countries most people in this impoverished setting of Dhaka are less likely to seek care from a professional healthcare provider than from a non-professional healthcare provider, which could be attributed to a higher number of diarrheal deaths among young children in Bangladesh. Dissemination of information on health education, increasing the supply of skilled healthcare providers, and low-cost and quality healthcare services may encourage more people to seek care from professional healthcare providers, thus may help reduce child mortality in the country. Further studies are warranted to validate the results.     

Association between disparities in intergenerational economic mobility and cause-specific mortality among Black and White persons in the United States

BackgroundEvidence about the association between structural racism and mortality in the United States is limited. We examined the association between ongoing structural racism, measured as inequalities in adulthood income between White and Black children with similar parental household income (economic mobility gap) in a recent birth cohort, and Black-White disparities in death rates (mortality gap) overall and for major causes.MethodsSex-, race/ethnicity-, and county-specific data were used to examine sex-specific associations between economic mobility and mortality gaps for all causes combined, heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), injury/violence, all malignant cancers, and 14 cancer types. Economic mobility data for 1978–1983 birth cohorts and death rates during 2011–2018 were obtained from the Opportunity Atlas and National Center for Health Statistics, respectively. Data from 471 counties were included in analyses of all-cause mortality at ages 30−39 years during 2011–2018 (corresponding to partially overlapping 1978–1983 birth cohorts); and from 1,572 and 1,248 counties in analyses of all-cause and cause-specific mortality in all ages combined, respectively.ResultsIn ages 30−39 years, a one percentile increase in the economic mobility gap was associated with a 6.8 % (95 % confidence interval 1.8 %–11.8 %) increase in the Black-White mortality gap among males and a 13.5 % (8.9 %–18.1 %) increase among females, based on data from 471 counties. In all ages combined, the corresponding percentages based on data from 1,572 counties were 10.2 % (7.2 %–13.2 %) among males and 14.8 % (11.4 %–18.2 %) among females, equivalent to an increase of 18.4 and 14.0 deaths per 100,000 in the mortality gap, respectively. Similarly, strong associations between economic mobility gap and mortality gap in all ages were found for major causes of death, notably for potentially preventable conditions, including COPD, injury/violence, and cancers of the lung, liver, and cervix.ConclusionsEconomic mobility gap conditional on parental income in a recent birth cohort as a marker of ongoing structural racism is strongly associated with Black-White disparities in all-cause mortality and mortality from several causes.     

Growth of dark chub, Zacco temmincki (Cyprinidae), with a discussion of sexual size differences

I examined the annual and seasonal growth of dark chub, Zacco temmincki, in a Japanese river. Investigation of opercular rings showed that the fish reached a maximum age of 8 years. There was no significant sexual size difference at younger ages (3–5 years), but males were larger than females at older ages (6–7 years). Annual increments of length and weight for males that were recaptured were also larger than those for females. The fish spawn from June to August. Females grew for a short period from April to May, but males on average grew for a longer period from April to August. There was no sexual difference in growth rate except during the spawning period. Annual growth rate was negatively correlated with fish length in each sex. The sexual size differences at older ages of the fish might be due to the polygynous mating system in which most mature males could not obtain females and invested for somatic growth in the spawning period, and a short growing season that was overlapped considerably with the spawning period.     

Transgenerational effects of childhood conditions on third generation health and education outcomes

This paper examines the extent to which pre-puberty nutritional conditions in one generation affect productivity-related outcomes in later generations. Recent findings from the biological literature suggest that the so-called slow growth period around age 9 is a sensitive period for male germ cell development. We build on this evidence and investigate whether undernutrition at those ages transmits to children and grandchildren. Our findings indicate that third generation males (females) tend to have higher mental health scores if their paternal grandfather (maternal grandmother) was exposed to a famine during the slow growth period. These effects appear to reflect biological responses to adaptive expectations about scarcity in the environment, and as such they can be seen as an economic correctional mechanism in evolution, with marked socio-economic implications for the offspring.     

Socioeconomic variation in estimated growth velocity of schoolchildren from a rural, subsistence agricultural community in southern Mexico

Socioeconomic variation in estimated growth velocities (annual growth increments) of several anthropometric dimensions was considered in schoolchildren from a rural, subsistence agricultural community in the Valley of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. The children (114 males, 99 females), 6-13 years of age, were measured twice, approximately one year apart. Annual growth increments were computed by subtracting measurements taken in the fall of 1978 from those taken in the fall of 1979. Information on household land holdings and appliances and parental occupation was used to compute an index of socioeconomic status (SES). Analysis of annual increments among upper SES (65 males, 45 females) and lower (49 males, 54 females) children indicated negligible differences. The results suggest that growth deficits evident in the children at school age occurred in infancy and early childhood so that there was little, if any, SES variation in growth rate at the school ages.     

Aspects of the biology of Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill) in Trinidad

A study was made of the biology of S. maculatus . Results of gonadal examination of 347 males and 409 females suggest spawning takes place from October to April, a period associated with low salinities. First spawning takes place at ages I1 and/or III for both sexes. Sex ratio results suggest spawning may be promiscuous, males outnumbering females. Egg counts from 12 ripe females ranged from 26 057 to 149 736. A period of abundance from May to September may be associated with a post-spawning feeding migration encompassing the island, possibly in a clockwise direction. Otolith were used to age 817 fish. Opaque and translucent rings are formed yearly. The translucent ring, representing a period of slow growth, is laid down during the spawning season. The fish can live for nine years with females growing faster than males. Growth parameters are compared with those obtained for Brazilian and Florida fish. Mortality rates were investigated and gill nets effected higher mortality rates than beach seines. Full recruitment takes place at age III for gill nets, and ages II and III for beach seines.     

Seasonal pattern in age, sex and body condition of Barn Owls Tyto alba killed on motorways

The Barn Owl Tyto alba was the most common owl killed on motorways in northeastern France. The possible causes of this mortality and the age, sex and body condition of the road-killed birds in 1991–1994 have been investigated. The number of birds killed on roads was highest in the period from early autumn to late winter, i.e. during the non-breeding period, and showed a pattern similar to that of the temporal difference between sunset, which varies with day length, and peak of traffic, the occurrence of which is constant throughout the year. An autumnal mortality peak, concomitant with the post-fledging dispersal, was mainly of immature birds, especially females. A second mortality peak in late winter was composed mainly of mature birds, with an equal proportion of males and females. From autumn to winter, there was no significant change in body mass in the different age and sex categories of birds killed on roads, except for mature males which had a significantly lower body mass in winter. From early autumn to late winter, the mean body mass of immature owls killed on motorways did not differ significantly from that of captive immatures fed ad libitum. This suggests that the immature birds were in good body condition. In contrast, the body mass of road-killed mature females was significantly lower than that of captive mature females over the same time periods. In mature males in late winter, a drop in body mass in both road-killed and captive birds suggests an endogenous seasonal phenomenon. Except for mature females, Barn Owls killed on roads in 1991–1994 were in good body condition. This does not support the idea that only birds in poor body condition were killed. We conclude that the mortality of Barn Owls on motorways in autumn and winter was probably related to the concomitance between the peak of traffic and the onset of hunting activity and the large number and dispersal of immature individuals during the same period.     

Socio-economic transition, inequality, and mortality in Lithuania.

The study assessed inequalities in mortality of Lithuanian urban and rural populations throughout the period of socio-economic transition (1990-2000). Mortality from major causes of death, except cancers in females, was higher among the rural population. Inequality in mortality increased during the period of transition, especially among males, mainly due to more rapidly improving health of the urban population. Cardiovascular diseases and external causes made the largest contribution to the inequality. Differences in mortality of urban and rural populations point to greater social and psychological stress affecting the rural population, unhealthy life styles, inequities in accessibility of health care and lack of preventive programs in rural areas.     

Growth and mortality in mountain hares: the effect of sex and date of birth

Summary Current theory suggests that high juvenile growth effort, may result in higher mortality. This prediction is tested in mountain hares (Lepus timidus), by examination of post-weaning growth and mortality of males and females. Dates of birth were estimated from weight at first capture and growth in body weight and hind foot length was described by the logistic growth equation. Although adult female hares are on average larger than males, this results from a longer period of growth and not from a faster growth rate. There was no clear sex bias in mortality, a slight but not significantly greater proportion of males suffered mortality during the growth period. Predictions as to sex difference in mortality should specify which aspects of growth (rate or duration) are the agents of mortality, since the two parameters are not necessarily positively associated. Overall asymptotic body size decreased and rate of growth increased from early through to late-born young. Rate of growth in hind foot length was greater in late-born males but not in late-born females as compared with those born earlier. It is hypothesized that late-born males are more tightly constrained to complete growth and subsequent sexual maturation earlier than late-born females.     

The demography of Howler Monkeys (Alouatta palliata) on Barro Colorado Island,Panamá

Chronological ages of Alouattaon Barro Colorado Island (BCI) were estimated from longitudinal dental wear. Combining these data with visual censuses, we approximated the study population’s age profile. A stable model was then constructed; from it we derived agespecific mortality rates. Mortality of immature animals is high, with 88% of the males and 65% of the females dying before 5 years. Adult mortality is low until 11 years, when it accelerates. The average adult life span is 16.6 years for males and 15.5 for females. The maximum life span is over 20 years. A pubertal male growth spurt occurs from 3 to 5 years, at which time females are primiparous. Sexual size differences develop primarily during this time. The 1976 age profile had anomalously few animals aged 7 years and males aged 8–9 and 15–16 years. With corroborating evidence, we hypothesize that these deficits resulted from excessive rainfall in 1963 and 1971, which reduced the fall fruit crop and led to a high juvenile mortality. Within half of our study troops, some adult males have nearly identical ages, suggesting an active process of agemate coalition. We hypothesize a form of kin selection, wherein peripheral male cohorts from the same natal troop have greater survival and social success than solitary animals. The stable model suggests an annual growth rate of 1.5% during the 1970s. Estimates of 16.7 and 4% for the previous two decades, following a yellow-fever epidemic, imply that the BCI population is becoming stationary. A very different age structure existed on neighboring Orchid Island in 1976, suggesting general food limitation. By contrast, the lowered, but continuing growth on BCI suggests a less drastic limiting mechanism. We hypothesize that intratroop social competition limits population growth by regulating subadult survival rates during food scarcity cycles.     

Comparison of Gender Differences in Intracerebral Hemorrhage in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population

BackgroundIntracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) accounts for 10–15% of all first time strokes and with incidence twice as high in the Asian compared to Western population. This study aims to investigate gender differences in ICH patient outcomes in a multi-ethnic Asian population.MethodData for 1,192 patients admitted for ICH were collected over a four-year period. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify independent predictors and odds ratios were computed for 30-day mortality and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) comparing males and females.ResultMales suffered ICH at a younger age than females (62.2 ± 13.2 years vs. 66.3 ± 15.3 years; P<0.001). The occurrence of ICH was higher among males than females at all ages until 80 years old, beyond which the trend was reversed. Females exhibited increased severity on admission as measured by Glasgow Coma Scale compared to males (10.9 ± 4.03 vs. 11.4 ± 4.04; P = 0.030). No difference was found in 30-day mortality between females and males (F: 30.5% [155/508] vs. M: 27.0% [186/688]), with unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio (F/M) of 1.19 (P = 0.188) and 1.21 (P = 0.300). At discharge, there was a non-statistically significant but potentially clinically relevant morbidity difference between the genders as measured by GOS (dichotomized GOS of 4–5: F: 23.7% [119/503] vs. M: 28.7% [194/677]), with unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio (F/M) of 0.77 (P = 0.055) and 0.87 (P = 0.434).ConclusionIn our multi-ethnic Asian population, males developed ICH at a younger age and were more susceptible to ICH than women at all ages other than the beyond 80-year old age group. In contrast to the Western population, neurological status of female ICH patients at admission was poorer and their 30-day mortality was not reduced. Although the study was not powered to detect significance, female showed a trend toward worse 30-day morbidity at discharge.     

Morphological and reproductive characteristics of musk shrews (Suncus murinus) collected in Bangladesh, and development of the laboratory line (BAN line) derived from them

To establish a unique laboratory line of the musk shrew with different genetic properties from previously developed laboratory lines, 49 male and 49 female shrews were captured in the campus of Bangladesh Agricultural University from October through November in 1983 and from December in 1985 to January in 1986. The shrews collected were of various ages. They had light gray coats, with slight variations in color. Except for the 12 shrews introduced into our laboratory, the total length and body weight of the shrews ranged from 17.2 to 31.9 cm and 32.5 to 147.0 g in males, and 21.1 to 26.6 cm and 40.8 to 110.0 g in females, respectively. Pregnant females were found throughout the trapping period, and the average fetal litter size was 3.54 (11 cases). Five males and 7 females of the shrews captured in 1983 were transported to our laboratory. After more than 100 days of laboratory rearing, their total length and body weight averaged 27.6 cm and 147.3 g in males, and 24.6 cm and 81.7 g in females. Their body weight was more than double that of Japanese shrews. The shrews introduced (except for one male) produced a total of 59 offspring, which were regarded as the first generation of the laboratory line (BAN Line). Gestation period and average litter size were between 28 and 30 days (10 cases) and 3.47 (17 cases), respectively. The BAN line has consisted of about 60 individuals at each generation and has been maintained as a closed breeding colony.