Determination of transmembrane pH gradients and membrane potentials in liposomes.

Techniques for determining large transbilayer pH gradients (delta pH) and membrane potentials (delta psi) induced in response to delta pH in large unilamellar vesicle liposomal systems by measuring the transbilayer redistribution of radiolabeled compounds have been examined. For liposomes with acidic interiors, it is shown that protocols using radiolabeled methylamine in conjunction with gel filtration procedures to remove untrapped methylamine provide accurate measures of delta pH in most situations. Exceptions include gel state lipid systems, where transbilayer equilibration processes are slow, and situations where the interior buffering capacity is limited. These problems can be circumvented by incubation at elevated temperatures and by using probes with higher specific activities, respectively. Determination of delta pH in vesicles with a basic interior using weak acid probes such as radiolabeled acetate in conjunction with gel filtration was found to be less reliable, and an alternative equilibrium centrifugation protocol is described. In the case of determinations of the membrane potentials induced in response to these pH gradients, probes such as tetraphenylphosphonium and thiocyanate provide relatively accurate measures of the delta psi induced. It is shown that the maximum transmembrane pH gradient that can be stably maintained by an egg phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol 100-nm-diam large unilamellar vesicle is approximately 3.7 units, corresponding to an induced delta psi of 220 mV or transbilayer electrical field of 5 x 10(5) V/cm.     

Intervesicular exchange of lipids with weak acid and weak base characteristics: influence of transmembrane pH gradients

Transmembrane pH gradients have previously been shown to induce an asymmetric transmembrane distribution of simple lipids that exhibit weak acid or basic characteristics (Hope, M.J. and Cullis, P.R. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 4360-4366). In the present study we have examined the influence of proton gradients on the inter-vesicular exchange of stearylamine and oleic acid. We show that vesicles containing stearylamine immediately aggregate with vesicles containing phosphatidylserine and that disaggregation occurs subsequently as stearylamine equilibrates between the two vesicle populations. Despite visible flocculation during the aggregation phase, vesicle integrity is maintained. Stearylamine is the only lipid to exchange, fusion does not occur and vesicles are able to maintain a proton gradient. When stearylamine is sequestered to the inner monolayer in response to a transmembrane pH gradient (inside acidic) aggregation is not observed and diffusion of stearylamine to acceptor vesicles is greatly reduced. The ability of delta pH-dependent lipid asymmetry to modulate lipid exchange is also demonstrated for fatty acids. Oleic acid can be induced to transfer from one population of vesicles to another by maintaining a basic interior pH in the acceptor vesicles. Moreover, it is shown that the same acceptor vesicles are capable of depleting serum albumin of bound fatty acid. These results are discussed with respect to the mechanism and modulation of lipid flow between membranes both in vitro and in vivo.     

Influence of transbilayer area asymmetry on the morphology of large unilamellar vesicles.

The morphological consequences of differences in the monolayer surface areas of large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) have been examined employing cryoelectron microscopy techniques. Surface area was varied by inducing net transbilayer transport of dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPG) in dioleoylphosphatidylcholine (DOPC):DOPG (9:1, mol:mol) LUVs in response to transmembrane pH gradients. It is shown that when DOPG is transported from the inner to the outer monolayer, initially invaginated LUVs are transformed to long narrow tubular structures, or spherical structures with one or more protrusions. Tubular structures are also seen in response to outward DOPG transport in DOPC:DOPG:Chol (6:1:3, mol:mol:mol) LUV systems, and when lyso-PC is allowed to partition into the exterior monolayer of DOPC:DOPG (9:1, mol:mol) LUVs in the absence of DOPG transport. Conversely, when the inner monolayer area is expanded by the transport of DOPG from the outer monolayer to the inner monolayer of non-invaginated LUVs, a reversion to invaginated structures is observed. The morphological changes are well described by an elastic bending theory of the bilayer. Identification of the difference in relaxed monolayer areas and of the volume-to-area ratio of the LUVs as the shape-determining factors allows a quantitative classification of the observed morphologies. The morphology seen in LUVs supports the possibility that factors leading to differences in monolayer surface areas could play important roles in intracellular membrane transport processes.     

Dopamine accumulation in large unilamellar vesicle systems induced by transmembrane ion gradients

Transmembrane movement of dopamine in response to K+ or H+ ion gradients has been investigated. It is shown that dopamine can accumulate rapidly into large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) composed of egg phosphatidylcholine exhibiting either a K+ diffusion potential (delta psi; negative inside) or a pH gradient (inside acidic). This can result in entrapped dopamine concentrations of 30-40 mM and inside-outside concentration gradients of nearly 300-fold. The transmembrane dopamine gradients formed in LUV systems exhibiting delta pH (inside acidic) indicate that the transport process can be dictated by movement of the neutral form of dopamine which redistributes according to a simple Henderson-Hasselbach equilibrium. The mechanism of dopamine transport in response to a valinomycin-induced K+ potential is more complex. Although generation of a K+ diffusion potential results in acidification of the vesicle interior, the magnitude of the induced delta pH (approx. 1 pH unit) is insufficient to account for the dopamine concentration gradient achieved (greater than 200-fold). Further, data presented here suggest that higher uptake levels of dopamine can be achieved when certain anions (ATP and citrate) are entrapped within the LUV system. These anions may complex with the protonated form of dopamine creating a non-equilibrium trapping phenomena resulting in interior concentrations of dopamine in excess of that predicted by a simple Henderson-Hasselbach equilibrium.     

Shape changes of giant liposomes induced by an asymmetric transmembrane distribution of phospholipids.

The influence of a phospholipid transmembrane redistribution on the shape of nonspherical flaccid vesicles was investigated at a fixed temperature by optical microscopy. In a first series of experiments, a transmembrane pH gradient was imposed on egg phosphatidylcholine (EPC)-egg phosphatidylglycerol (EPG) (100:1) giant vesicles. The delta pH induced an asymmetric distribution of EPG. Simultaneously, discoid vesicles were transformed into tubular or a series of connected small vesicles. The fraction of phospholipid transfer necessary for a shape change from discoid to two connected vesicles was of the order of 0.1% of the total phospholipids. Additional lipid redistribution was accompanied by a sequence of shape changes. In a second series of experiments, lyso phosphatidylcholine (L-PC) was added to, or subtracted from, the external leaflet of giant EPC vesicles. The addition of L-PC induced a change from discoid to a two-vesicle state without further evolution, suggesting that lipid transfer and lipid addition are not equivalent. L-PC depletion from the outer leaflet generated stomatocyte-like vesicles. Whenever possible, we have determined whether the giant vesicles undergoing shape changes were unilamellar or multilamellar by measuring the elastic area compressibility modulus, K, by the micropipette assay (Kwok and Evans, 1981). Shape transformations triggered by phospholipid modification of the most external bilayer were indeed influenced by the presence of other underlying membranes that played a role comparable to that of a passive cytoskeleton layer. It appears that in real cells, invaginations of the plasma membrane or budding of organelles could be triggered by a phospholipid transfer from one leaflet to the other caused, for instance, by the aminophospholipid translocase which is present in eukaryotic membranes.     

Transmembrane distribution of lipophilic cations in response to an electrochemical potential in reconstituted cytochromec oxidase vesicles and in vesicles exhibiting a potassium ion diffusion potential

It has been shown previously that biogenic amines and a number of pharmaceutical agents can redistribute across vesicle membranes in response to imposed potassium ion or proton gradients. Surprisingly, drug accumulation is observed for vesicles exhibiting either a pH gradient (interior acidic) or a membrane potential (interior negative), implying that these compounds can traverse the lipid bilayer as either the neutral or charged species. This interpretation, however, is complicated by the fact that vesicles exhibiting a membrane potential (interior negative) accumulate protons in response to this potential, thereby creating a pH gradient (interior acidic). This raises the possibility that in both vesicle systems drug redistribution occurs in response to the proton gradient present. We have therefore compared the uptake of several lipophilic cations by reconstituted cytochromec oxidase vesicles and by similar vesicles exhibiting a potassium ion diffusion potential. While turnover of the oxidase generates a membrane potential of comparable magnitude to the potassium ion diffusion system, it is associated with a proton gradient of opposite polarity (interior basic). Both systems show rapid uptake of the permanently charged lipophilic cation, tetraphenylphosphonium, but only the potassium ion diffusion system accumulates the lipophilic amines doxorubicin and propranolol. This provides compelling evidence that such weak bases redistribute only in response to pH gradients and not membrane potential.     

A novel method for the efficient entrapment of calcium in large unilamellar phospholipid vesicles

A technique for the efficient entrapment of high concentrations of Ca2+ in large unilamellar phospholipid vesicles (LUVs), using the carboxylic acid antibiotic ionophore A23187 (calcimycin) is demonstrated. It is shown that rapid A23187-mediated entrapment of Ca2+, corresponding to essentially 100% sequestration of the extravesicular cation may be achieved for egg yolk phosphatidylcholine LUVs (100 nm) in the presence of a transmembrane proton gradient (acidic interior). Interior-exterior concentration cation gradients of over 400-fold may be readily achieved, with interior Ca2+ concentrations in excess of 250 mM. It is shown that the extent and efficiency of the A23187-mediated uptake process is affected by the intravesicular buffering capacity and the extravesicular Ca2+ concentration in a manner that is consistent with a Ca2(+)-H+ exchange process. In the absence of a pH gradient, or the presence of a reversed gradient (basic interior), only background levels of cation uptake are detected. The driving force for A23187-mediated uptake of Ca2+ is shown to depend on the intravesicular proton pool rather than on a chelation process. This protocol provides a novel method for the efficient entrapment of high concentrations of Ca2+ and other cations in phospholipid vesicles.     

Lipid asymmetry induced by transmembrane pH gradients in large unilamellar vesicles

We have investigated the influence of transmembrane pH gradients across large unilamellar vesicle membranes on the transbilayer distributions of simple lipids with weak base and weak acid characteristics. Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid labeling results consistent with a rapid and complete migration of stearylamine and sphingosine to the inner monolayer of the large unilamellar vesicles are observed when the large unilamellar vesicles' interior is acidic. Alternatively, when the vesicle interior is basic, oleic and stearic acid cannot be removed by external bovine serum albumin, indicating a localization in the inner monolayer. Moreover, effects corresponding to the decrease in external surface charge predicted upon the migration of stearylamine or stearic acid to the inner monolayer are readily detected employing ion exchange chromatography. These results are consistent with transbilayer distributions of these agents dictated by a Henderson-Hasselbach equilibrium. The possible implications for metabolic regulation by pH gradients, as well as factors giving rise to phospholipid transbilayer asymmetry, are discussed.     

Packing constraints and electrostatic surface potentials determine transmembrane asymmetry of phosphatidylethanol

The energetic determinants of the distribution of anionic phospholipids across a phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho) bilayer with different packing constraints in the two leaflets were studied, using (13)CH2-ethyl-labeled phosphatidylethanol (PtdEth) as a (13)C NMR membrane probe. PtdEth is unique in exhibiting a split (13)CH2-ethyl resonance in sonicated vesicles, the two components originating from the inner and outer leaflets, thus permitting the determination of the PtdEth concentration in each leaflet. Small and large unilamellar PtdEth-PtdCho vesicles were prepared in solutions of different ionic strengths. A quantitative expression for the transbilayer distribution of PtdEth, based on the balance between steric and electrostatic factors, was derived. The transbilayer difference in packing constraints was obtained from the magnitude of the PtdEth signal splitting. The electrostatic contribution could be satisfactorily described by the transmembrane difference in Gouy-Chapman surface potentials. At low (0.1-0.25%) PtdEth levels and high (up to 500 mM) salt concentrations, PtdEth had a marked fivefold preference for the inner leaflet, presumably because of its small headgroup, which favors tighter packing. At higher PtdEth content (4.8-9.1%) and low salt concentrations, where electrostatic repulsion becomes a dominant factor, the asymmetry was markedly reduced and an almost even distribution across the bilayer was obtained. In less curved, large vesicles, where packing constraints in the two leaflets are approximately the same, the PtdEth distribution was almost symmetrical. This study is the first quantitative analysis of the balance between steric and electrostatic factors that determines the equilibrium transbilayer distribution of charged membrane constituents.     

Real-time transmembrane translocation of penetratin driven by light-generated proton pumping

Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) are small peptides that are able to penetrate the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. Because these peptides can also carry large hydrophilic cargos such as proteins, they could potentially be used to transport biologically active drugs across cell membranes to modulate in vivo biology. One characteristic feature of the CPPs is that they typically have a net positive charge. Therefore, a key issue associated with the transport mechanism is the role of the transmembrane electrochemical potential in driving the peptides across the membrane. In this study, we have reconstituted bacteriorhodopsin (bR) in large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) with fluorescein-labeled CPP penetratin enclosed within the LUVs under conditions when the fluorescence is quenched. Illumination of the bacteriorhodopsin-containing LUVs resulted in creation of a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient (positive on the inside). Upon generation of this gradient, an increase in fluorescence was observed, which shows that the proton gradient drives the translocation of penetratin. The mechanism most likely can be generalized to other CPPs.     

Uptake of basic amino acids and peptides into liposomes in response to transmembrane pH gradients.

The uptake of derivatives of lysine and a pentapeptide (ala-met-leu-trp-ala) into large unilamellar vesicle (LUV) systems in response to transmembrane pH gradients has been examined. In these derivatives, the C-terminal carboxyl functions have been converted to methyl esters or amides. It is shown that the presence of a pH gradient (interior acidic) results in the rapid and efficient accumulation of these weak base amino acid and peptide derivatives into LUVs in a manner consistent with permeation of the neutral (deprotonated) form. It is suggested that this property may have general implications for mechanisms of transbilayer translocation of peptides, such as signal sequences, which exhibit weak base characteristics.     

Isolation and assay of corn root membrane vesicles with reduced proton permeability

Conditions promoting the formation of sealed membrane vesicles from corn roots with reduced proton permeability were examined using the probe 9-aminoacridine as a rapid indicator of pH gradient formation and dissipation. Plasma membrane vesicles isolated by differential and density gradient centrifugation were leaky to protons and rapidly equilibrated when exposed to artificially imposed pH gradients. The leaky plasma membrane vesicles showed reduced proton permeability when incubated with calcium or with excess phospholipids. However, these vesicles were unable to form ATP-induced pH gradients. Sealed vesicles isolated by discontinuous Ficoll gradient centrifugation of a microsomal fraction displayed reduced proton permeability and were osmotically active. In contrast to purified plasma membrane vesicles, the microsomal-derived vesicles were more suitable for studies of active proton transport.     

Ion gradient-induced membrane translocation of model peptides.

The K+ diffusion potential-induced association of synthetic model peptides carrying a single positive charge originating from the NH2-terminal amino function with large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) consisting of phosphatidylcholine (PC) has been reported previously (de Kroon, A. I. P. M., J. de Gier, and B. de Kruijff. 1989. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 981:371-373). To determine the vesicle localization of the associated peptides, fluorescence measurements utilizing the peptides' tryptophan residue as intrinsic fluorescent probe were performed. The application in these measurements, of vesicles that exhibit an asymmetric transbilayer distribution of brominated PC which is a quencher of tryptophan fluorescence, unequivocally demonstrated that the peptide H3N(+)-AIMLWA-Ome (AIXme+) is accumulated in the interface of the inner leaflet of the vesicle membrane in response to the valinomycin-induced K+ diffusion potential (negative inside). The relative contributions of the membrane potential (delta psi) and the pH gradient (delta pH, acidic inside) induced by the K+ diffusion potential, to the process have been assessed. An analysis of the pH and delta pH dependencies of the process demonstrated that the K+ diffusion potential-induced peptide accumulation is largely determined by a redistribution of peptide according to the transbilayer pH gradient, in agreement with a translocation across the vesicle membrane of the neutral, deprotonated form of the peptide. The general validity of the mechanism proposed for the vesicle-uptake of AIXme+ has been examined by extending the experiments to peptide analogues with a single negative charge and to peptides with two positive charges, and by investigating the effect of incorporating the acidic phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) into the LUV. The incorporation of CL appeared not to affect the K+ diffusion, potential-induced vesicle uptake of AIXme+. The peptide H3N(+)-RMLWA-Ome (RXme2+) showed a small delta pH independent fluorescence response to the delta psi upon raising the CL content of the vesicles to 25%.     

Transbilayer transport of phosphatidic acid in response to transmembrane pH gradients

Preliminary studies have shown that asymmetric transbilayer distributions of phosphatidic acid (PA) can be induced by transmembrane pH gradients (delta pH) in large unilamellar vesicles [Hope et al. (1989) Biochemistry 28, 4181-4187]. Here the mechanism of PA transport is examined employing TNS as a fluorescent probe of lipid asymmetry. It is shown that the kinetics of PA transport are consistent with the transport of the uncharged (protonated) form. Transport of the neutral form can be rapid, exhibiting half-times for transbilayer transport of approximately 25 s at 45 degrees C. It is also shown that PA transport is associated with a large activation energy (28 kcal/mol) similar to that observed for phosphatidylglycerol. The maximum induced transbilayer asymmetry of PA corresponded to approximately 95% on the inner monolayer for vesicles containing 5 mol % PA.     

Characteristics of the binding of tacrine to acidic phospholipids.

Tacrine (1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-9-acridinamine monohydrate) is an inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase currently used in the treatment of the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. The present study demonstrates preferential binding of this drug to acidic phospholipids, as revealed by fluorescence polarization, penetration into lipid monolayers, and effects on the thermal phase behavior of dimyristoyl phosphatidic acid (DMPA). A fivefold enhancement in the polarization of tacrine emission is evident above the main phase transition temperature (T(m)) of DMPA vesicles, whereas below T(m) only a 0.75-fold increase is observed. In contrast, the binding of tacrine to another acidic phospholipid, dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol, did not exhibit strong dependence on T(m). In accordance with the electrostatic nature of the membrane association of tacrine, the extent of binding was augmented with increasing contents of egg PG in phosphatidylcholine liposomes. Furthermore, [NaCl] > 50 mM dissociates tacrine (albeit incompletely) from the liposomes composed of acidic phospholipids. Inclusion of the cationic amphiphile sphingosine in egg PG vesicles decreased the membrane association of tacrine until at 1:1 sphingosine: egg PG stoichiometry binding was no longer evident. Tacrine also penetrated into egg PG but not into egg PC monolayers. Together with broadening of the main transition and causing a shoulder on its high temperature side, the binding of tacrine to DMPA liposomes results in a concentration-dependent reduction both in the combined enthalpy delta H of the above overlapping endotherms and the main transition temperature T(m). Interestingly, these changes in the thermal phase behavior of DMPA as a function of the content of the drug in vesicles were strongly nonlinear. More specifically, upon increasing [tacrine], T(m) exhibited stepwise decrements. Simultaneously, sharp minima in delta H were observed at drug:lipid stoichiometries of approximately 2:100 and 25:100, whereas a sharp maximum in delta H was evident at 18:100. The above results are in keeping with tacrine causing phase separation processes in the bilayer and may also relate to microscopic drug-induced ordering processes within the membrane.     

Transmembrane transport of peptidoglycan precursors across model and bacterial membranes

Translocation of the peptidoglycan precursor Lipid II across the cytoplasmic membrane is a key step in bacterial cell wall synthesis, but hardly understood. Using NBD-labelled Lipid II, we showed by fluorescence and TLC assays that Lipid II transport does not occur spontaneously and is not induced by the presence of single spanning helical transmembrane peptides that facilitate transbilayer movement of membrane phospholipids. MurG catalysed synthesis of Lipid II from Lipid I in lipid vesicles also did not result in membrane translocation of Lipid II. These findings demonstrate that a specialized protein machinery is needed for transmembrane movement of Lipid II. In line with this, we could demonstrate Lipid II translocation in isolated Escherichia coli inner membrane vesicles and this transport could be uncoupled from the synthesis of Lipid II at low temperatures. The transport process appeared to be independent from an energy source (ATP or proton motive force). Additionally, our studies indicate that translocation of Lipid II is coupled to transglycosylation activity on the periplasmic side of the inner membrane.     

Sulfur dioxide inhibits the sucrose carrier of the plant plasma membrane.

Plasma membrane vesicles were prepared by phase partition from a microsomal fraction of broad bean (Vicia faba L.) leaf. In order to study the effects of sodium sulfite on active uptake of sucrose, the vesicles were artificially energized by a transmembrane pH gradient (delta pH) and/or a transmembrane electrical gradient (delta psi). At 1 mM, sulfite strongly inhibited sucrose uptake but did not affect the two components of the proton motive force, delta pH (measured by dimethyloxazolidine dione) and delta psi (measured by tetraphenylphosphonium). Moreover, sulfite did not inhibit the proton-pumping ATPase of the plasma membrane vesicles. These data demonstrate that sulfite may inhibit transport of photoassimilates in plant by a direct inhibition of the sucrose carrier of the plasma membrane.     

Cation/proton antiport systems in Escherichia coli. Solubilization and reconstitution of delta pH-driven sodium/proton and calcium/proton antiporters

Uptake of 22Na+ and 45Ca2+ into everted membrane vesicles from Escherichia coli was measured with imposed transmembrane pH gradients, acid interior, as driving force. Vesicles loaded with 0.5 M KCl were diluted into 0.5 M choline chloride to create a potassium gradient. Addition of nigericin to produce K+/H+ exchange resulted in formation of a pH gradient. This imposed gradient was capable of driving 45Ca2+ accumulation. In another method vesicles loaded with 0.5 M NH4Cl were diluted into 0.5 M choline chloride, creating an ammonium diffusion potential. A gradient of H+ was produced by passive efflux of NH3. With an ammonium gradient as driving force, everted vesicles accumulated both 45Ca2+ and 22Na+. The data suggest that 22Na+ uptake was via the sodium/proton antiporter and 45Ca2+ via the calcium/proton antiporter. Uptake of both cations required alkaline pHout. A minimum pH gradient of 0.9 unit was needed for transport of either ion, suggesting gating of the antiporters. Octyl glucoside extracts of inner membrane were reconstituted with E. coli phospholipids in 0.5 M NH4Cl. NH4+-loaded proteoliposomes accumulated both 22Na+ and 45Ca2+, demonstrating that the sodium/proton and calcium/proton antiporters could be solubilized and reconstituted in a functional form.     

Nitrite Transport in Chloroplast Inner Envelope Vesicles (I. Direct Measurement of Proton-Linked Transport)

Chloroplast inner envelope membrane vesicles that are loaded with the pH-sensitive fluorophore, pyranine, show rapid internal acidification when nitrite is added. Acidification is dependent upon [delta]pH, with the inside of vesicles being alkaline with respect to the outside. The rate of vesicle acidification was directly proportional to the concentration of nitrite that was added and the imposed pH difference across the membrane. In contrast, added nitrate had no effect on vesicle acidification. Nitrite also caused acidification of asolectin vesicles. The extent of vesicle acidification is dependent on the internal volume of vesicles. Inner envelope and asolectin vesicles that were prepared by extrusion were approximately the same size, allowing them to be compared when the final extent of acidification, measured after the pH gradient had collapsed, was similar. The rate of nitrite-dependent acidification was similar in these two preparations at any single nitrite concentration. These results indicate that nitrite movement occurs by rapid diffusion across membranes as nitrous acid, and this movement is dependent on a proton gradient across the lipid bilayer. Under conditions approximating those in vivo, the rate of diffusion of nitrous acid far exceeds that of nitrite reduction within chloroplasts.     

Use of the fluorescent weak acid dansylglycine to measure transmembrane proton concentration gradients

The amphiphilic fluorescent dye N-[(5-dimethylamino)naphth-1-ylsulfonyl]glycine (dansylglycine) can be used to monitor the magnitude and stability of transmembrane proton gradients. Although freely soluble in aqueous media, the dye readily adsorbs to the surfaces of lipid vesicles. Because membrane-bound dye fluoresces at a higher frequency, and with greater efficiency, than dye in aqueous solution, it is easy to isolate the fluorescence emission from those dye molecules adsorbed to the lipid surface. When dansylglycine is mixed with phospholipid vesicles, the dye molecules attain a partition equilibrium between buffer and the outer, proximal surface of the vesicles. This is a rapid, diffusion-limited process that is indicated by a fast phase of fluorescence intensity increase monitored at 510 nm. In a second step, the inner, distal surface of each vesicle becomes populated with dye, a process that involves permeation through the lipid bilayer and that is generally much slower than the original adsorption step. Dansylglycine is a weak acid that permeates as an electrically neutral species; the flux of dye across the bilayer is thus strongly dependent on the degree of protonation of the dye's carboxylate moiety. When the external pH is lower than that of the vesicle lumen, the inward flux of dye is greater than that in the opposite direction, and dye accumulates in the lumen. This leads to a local elevation of dansylglycine concentration in the inner membrane monolayer, which in turn results in an elevated fluorescence intensity proportional to the membrane pH gradient.