Metabolism of Functional Groups Modifying the CNS Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein

We have examined the metabolic turnover of the peptide backbone of the CNS myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) and of the fucose and sulfate groups modifying this protein. Rats (20 or 90 days old) were injected intracranially with mixtures of [3H]fucose and [14C]glycine, [3H]glycine and [35S]sulfuric acid, or [3H]fucose and [35S]sulfuric acid. At times ranging from 30 min to 4 weeks later, myelin was isolated, and radioactivity in MAG was determined following electrophoretic separation. Following the peak of incorporation, glycine-derived radioactivity in the MAG peptide backbone declined several-fold during the first week and was then metabolically stable (half-life much greater than 1 month). Declines with time in [3H]fucose- and [35S]sulfate-derived radioactivity in MAG were similar to that of [3H]glycine, an observation indicating that the fucose and sulfate groups modifying MAG are metabolized together with the peptide backbone as a single metabolic entity. These results were confirmed by experiments involving selective immunoprecipitation of MAG. The rates of incorporation of labeled glycine, fucose, and sulfate into MAG all decreased approximately 12-fold between 20 days of age and adulthood, a finding providing further evidence for concerted turnover of the entire molecule. Because of this concerted turnover, we suggest that functional groups modifying MAG serve some permanent structural role in protein configuration.     

Involvement of Proteolytic Enzymes and Their Inhibitors in Plant Protection (Review)

The literature data on possible ways of involvement of proteolytic enzymes and their inhibitors in protection of plants from pests and disease are analyzed. Certain practical applications of natural protease inhibitors to plant protection are discussed.     

AMPA受体的磷酸化与突触可塑性

突触可塑性在学习记忆中发挥了重要作用,AMPA(α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid,AMPA)受体功能和运输的调节是突触可塑性机制研究的重要环节。在突触可塑性发生过程中,激酶和磷酸酶能够调节AMPA受体C末端的磷酸化水平,进而影响AMPA受体运输。对于AMPA受体磷酸化的研究能够加深我们对突触可塑性机制的理解。     

Ethanol-Induced Plasticity of GABAA Receptors in the Basolateral Amygdala

Acute and chronic ethanol (EtOH) administration is known to affect function, surface expression, and subunit composition of γ-aminobutyric acid (A) receptors (GABA_ARs) in different parts of the brain, which is believed to play a major role in alcohol dependence and withdrawal symptoms. The basolateral amygdala (BLA) participates in anxiety-like behaviors including those induced by alcohol withdrawal. In the present study we assessed the changes in cell surface levels of select GABA_AR subunits in the BLA of a rat model of alcohol dependence induced by chronic intermittent EtOH (CIE) treatment and long-term (>40 days) withdrawal and investigated the time-course of such changes after a single dose of EtOH (5 g/kg, gavage). We found an early decrease in surface expression of α4 and δ subunits at 1 h following single dose EtOH treatment. At 48 h post-EtOH and after CIE treatment there was an increase in α4 and γ2, while α1, α2, and δ surface expression were decreased. To relate functional changes in GABA_ARs to changes in their subunit composition we analyzed miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) and the picrotoxin-sensitive tonic current (I_tonic) 48 h after EtOH intoxication. The I_tonic magnitude and most of the mIPSC kinetic parameters (except faster mIPSC decay) were unchanged at 48 h post-EtOH. At the same time, I_tonic potentiation by acute EtOH was greatly reduced, whereas mIPSCs became significantly more sensitive to potentiation by acute EtOH. These results suggest that EtOH intoxication-induced GABA_AR plasticity in the BLA might contribute to the diminished sedative/hypnotic and maintained anxiolytic effectiveness of EtOH.     

Receptors acting through adenylate cyclase in the CNS

The author summarizes the current literature on neurotransmitters (dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and histamine) acting through adenlyate cyclase and also those ating direcctly without the intermission of c-AMP. The criteria of receptor binding are also stressed. The characteristics of D1 and D2 dopaminergic, beta1 adrenergic, H1 and H2 histaminergic receptors, their localisation and specific antagonists resp. agonists are emphasized too. Finally a new model is presented where adenylate cyclase and ionophore share a common receptor.     

Toll样受体在肝脏疾病中的功能

Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLR)是一类可以识别病原体并迅速启动天然免疫反应的跨膜蛋白,它们也可以调节机体的获得性免疫及组织的炎症反应,是机体感知、抵御及清除病原体的关键分子。近来发现TLR在多种肝脏疾病的发生、发展及恢复过程中起着重要的调节作用,这方面的研究为许多慢性肝病的治疗提供了新的线索。该文综述了TLR在酒精性肝病、脂肪肝、病毒性肝炎、肝硬化以及肝细胞癌的病理生理学中的作用,展望了将来需重点研究的问题。     

Identification of G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) in Primary Cilia and Their Possible Involvement in Body Weight Control

Primary cilia are sensory organelles that harbor various receptors such as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We analyzed subcellular localization of 138 non-odorant GPCRs. We transfected GPCR expression vectors into NIH3T3 cells, induced ciliogenesis by serum starvation, and observed subcellular localization of GPCRs by immunofluorescent staining. We found that several GPCRs whose ligands are involved in feeding behavior, including prolactin-releasing hormone receptor (PRLHR), neuropeptide FF receptor 1 (NPFFR1), and neuromedin U receptor 1 (NMUR1), localized to the primary cilia. In addition, we found that a short form of dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2S) is efficiently transported to the primary cilia, while a long form of dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2L) is rarely transported to the primary cilia. Using an anti-Prlhr antibody, we found that Prlhr localized to the cilia on the surface of the third ventricle in the vicinity of the hypothalamic periventricular nucleus. We generated the Npy2r-Cre transgenic mouse line in which Cre-recombinase is expressed under the control of the promoter of Npy2r encoding a ciliary GPCR. By mating Npy2r-Cre mice with Ift80 flox mice, we generated Ift80 conditional knockout (CKO) mice in which Npy2r-positive cilia were diminished in number. We found that Ift80 CKO mice exhibited a body weight increase. Our results suggest that Npy2r-positive cilia are important for body weight control.     

The Abi Proteins and Their Involvement in Bacteriocin Self-Immunity

The Abi protein family consists of putative membrane-bound metalloproteases. While they are involved in membrane anchoring of proteins in eukaryotes, little is known about their function in prokaryotes. In some known bacteriocin loci, Abi genes have been found downstream of bacteriocin structural genes (e.g., pln locus from Lactobacillus plantarum and sag locus from Streptococcus pyogenes), where they probably are involved in self-immunity. By modifying the profile hidden Markov model used to select Abi proteins in the Pfam protein family database, we show that this family is larger than presently recognized. Using bacteriocin-associated Abi genes as a means to search for novel bacteriocins in sequenced genomes, seven new bacteriocin-like loci were identified in Gram-positive bacteria. One such locus, from Lactobacillus sakei 23K, was selected for further experimental study, and it was confirmed that the bacteriocin-like genes (skkAB) exhibited antimicrobial activity when expressed in a heterologous host and that the associated Abi gene (skkI) conferred immunity against the cognate bacteriocin. Similar investigation of the Abi gene plnI and the Abi-like gene plnL from L. plantarum also confirmed their involvement in immunity to their cognate bacteriocins (PlnEF and PlnJK, respectively). Interestingly, the immunity genes from these three systems conferred a high degree of cross-immunity against each other''s bacteriocins, suggesting the recognition of a common receptor. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that the conserved motifs constituting the putative proteolytic active site of the Abi proteins are essential for the immunity function of SkkI, and to our knowledge, this represents a new concept in self-immunity.Bacteriocins are ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides and proteins produced by a wide variety of bacterial genera. The majority of bacteriocins from Gram-positive bacteria are classified into two groups: the class I lantibiotics, containing posttranslationally modified peptides with ring-forming lanthionine or methyllanthionine residues, and the nonmodified class II peptide bacteriocins (8, 33, 34). Class II bacteriocins are further subdivided into pediocin-like bacteriocins (class IIa), two-peptide bacteriocins (class IIb), and nonpediocin one-peptide bacteriocins (class IIc) (33). Bacteriocin-producing bacteria normally possess a mechanism of immunity to protect themselves from their own bacteriocins, and such self-immunity is often mediated by a dedicated protein (32). For a few bacteriocin systems, the mechanisms by which these proteins confer immunity have been elucidated. For instance, immunity to the lantibiotic nisin (class I) involves a combined action which includes (i) sequestering of bacteriocins on the bacterial cell membrane by a protein called NisI and (ii) removal of the bacteriocins from cells by a dedicated ABC transporter (NisFEG) (39, 44). On the other hand, proteins conferring immunity to pediocin-like bacteriocins (class IIa) as well as lactococcins A and B (class IIc) have been shown to bind directly to the bacteriocin receptor and thereby inhibit pore formation (13). Hitherto, no immunity mechanism is known for any class IIb two-peptide bacteriocins.Recently, we reported that several bacteriocin loci encode proteins belonging to the Pfam Abi protein family (Pfam accession no. PF02517) (14). These loci include the plantaricin (pln) locus of Lactobacillus plantarum, encoding two two-peptide bacteriocins (12), the multibacteriocin pnc locus of Streptococcus pneumoniae (25), and the streptolysin S (sag) locus found in group A streptococci (35) (Fig. ​(Fig.1A).1A). Some of the Abi proteins encoded in these loci (PlnI in L. plantarum, PncO in S. pneumoniae, and SagE in Streptococcus pyogenes) are probable bacteriocin self-immunity proteins on the basis of gene knockout studies (10, 25) and genetic organization (i.e., being closely associated with bacteriocin structural genes), while others (e.g., PlnP and PlnTUVW in L. plantarum and PncP in S. pneumoniae) have completely unknown functions.Open in a separate windowFIG. 1.Abi-associated bacteriocin and bacteriocin-like loci. (A) Three known bacteriocin loci containing Abi genes, including the pln locus of L. plantarum (14), the pnc locus of S. pneumoniae (25), and the sag locus of S. pyogenes (10). (B) Seven potential new bacteriocin loci identified by genome mining for bacteriocin-associated Abi genes. Abi genes are shown as black arrows, bacteriocin structural genes are shown in red, ABC transporter genes are shown in blue, regulatory genes are shown in green, and other genes are shown in white. Gene names or locus tags are shown below the arrows. The genes are drawn approximately to scale. The boxed arrows in the L. sakei 23K genome represent a disrupted histidine protein kinase gene.The Abi family, also known as the CAAX amino-terminal protease family, consists of putative membrane-bound metalloproteases from both eukaryotes and prokaryotes (38), with the majority being bacterial proteins (90%). The Abi family is recognized by three highly conserved motifs (38): motif 1, consisting of two neighboring and invariant glutamate residues and a conserved arginine separated by three residues (EEXXXR, where X denotes any amino acid); motif 2, consisting of a conserved phenylalanine and a conserved histidine separated by three residues (FXXXH); and motif 3, with an invariant histidine. The three conserved motifs are thought to constitute the active site of the Abi protease, and their importance in proteolytic activity has been demonstrated by mutational analysis of the yeast Abi protease RCE1 (15). In eukaryotic cells, Abi family proteins are involved in membrane targeting of proteins harboring the C-terminal sequence CAAX (C, cysteine; A, aliphatic amino acid; and X, any amino acid) via a process known as prenylation, which consists of the following three sequential reactions (23): (i) a geranylgeranyltransferase/farnesyltransferase attaches a prenyl group (lipid anchor) to the cysteine in the fourth-to-last position, (ii) a CAAX protease of the Abi family cleaves off the three C-terminal amino acids (-AAX), and (iii) an isoprenylcysteine carboxyl methyltransferase then attaches a methyl group to the C-terminal cysteine.Despite being widespread in prokaryotic genomes, the function of Abi proteins has not been investigated much in bacteria, with the exception of gene knockout experiments on the Abi genes sagE and pncO, which implies their involvement in bacteriocin self-immunity in streptococci (10, 25). Another Abi-like gene, prsW in Bacillus subtilis, has been studied to some extent (16). PrsW does not belong to any Pfam family but contains the same three motifs as the Abi proteins, with the exception of the conserved histidine in motif 2, which has been replaced by a glutamate in this protein. PrsW is a protease involved in response to antimicrobial peptides via a process known as regulated intracellular proteolysis (16). In this process, PrsW together with another protease (YluC) cleaves an anti-σ factor (RsiW) to release σ^W, which subsequently regulates gene expression in a manner that protects the cells from antimicrobial peptides. However, the PrsW target protein RsiW in B. subtilis does not harbor the C-terminal consensus sequence CAAX found for Abi target proteins in eukaryotes.Pfam (http://pfam.sanger.ac.uk/) is a comprehensive collection of protein families and domains. For each protein family in Pfam, a profile hidden Markov model (profile HMM) is built from an alignment of sequences from nonredundant representatives of the family (seed sequences), and this profile HMM is then used in an iterative fashion to find new members of the protein family (18, 43). The Abi family in Pfam contains a large number of sequences (1,966 by September 2009). However, several proteins containing Abi or Abi-like motifs are somehow not detected by the current search tool. Examples of this include PrsW from B. subtilis and PlnL from L. plantarum, which apparently contain all three motifs but somehow do not fit into Pfam''s Abi family. These observations suggest that the profile HMM for Abi may be based upon a slightly skewed sample of seed sequences, resulting in a low sensitivity. We provide here an updated profile HMM to detect Abi-like proteins in prokaryotes that are omitted in the present protein family. Furthermore, searches for novel Abi-associated bacteriocin loci were also performed in silico. Several potentially novel bacteriocin loci were identified, and one of them was assessed further by experimentation. The role of bacteriocin-associated Abi genes in self-immunity was also addressed by heterologous expression and site-directed mutagenesis.     

GDNF家族及其受体

神经营养因子对神经系统的发育和维持起着至关重要的作用。它们不但能够促进神经元的分化和存活 ,而且抑制与神经系统退行性疾病、神经损伤和神经毒相关的神经元的退化。最近被确认的ＧＤＮＦ家族是ＴＧＦ β家族成员的远亲。ＧＤＮＦ作为该家族的第一个成员 ,发现于 1 993年 ,由Ｌｉｎ等人[1] 由大鼠胶质细胞株Ｂ49中提纯到 ,发现它能促进胚胎中脑多巴胺能神经元的存活和形态分化 ,以及提高它们对高亲和性多巴胺的摄取。最近的研究发现 ,与其它神经营养因子相比 ,ＧＤＮＦ对多巴胺能神经元和去甲状腺能神经元有更强的促活能力[2 ] ,并且对…     

A Role for Calcium-Permeable AMPA Receptors in Synaptic Plasticity and Learning

A central concept in the field of learning and memory is that NMDARs are essential for synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Surprisingly then, multiple studies have found that behavioral experience can reduce or eliminate the contribution of these receptors to learning. The cellular mechanisms that mediate learning in the absence of NMDAR activation are currently unknown. To address this issue, we examined the contribution of Ca²⁺-permeable AMPARs to learning and plasticity in the hippocampus. Mutant mice were engineered with a conditional genetic deletion of GluR2 in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (GluR2-cKO mice). Electrophysiology experiments in these animals revealed a novel form of long-term potentiation (LTP) that was independent of NMDARs and mediated by GluR2-lacking Ca²⁺-permeable AMPARs. Behavioral analyses found that GluR2-cKO mice were impaired on multiple hippocampus-dependent learning tasks that required NMDAR activation. This suggests that AMPAR-mediated LTP interferes with NMDAR-dependent plasticity. In contrast, NMDAR-independent learning was normal in knockout mice and required the activation of Ca²⁺-permeable AMPARs. These results suggest that GluR2-lacking AMPARs play a functional and previously unidentified role in learning; they appear to mediate changes in synaptic strength that occur after plasticity has been established by NMDARs.     

Plasticity of Glutamate and GABAA Receptors in the Hippocampus of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease

1. Aim: In Alzheimer's disease (AD) it is well known that specific regions of the brain are particularly vulnerable to the pathologic insults of the disease. In particular, the hippocampus is affected very early in the disease and by end stage AD is ravaged by neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques (i.e., the pathologic hallmarks of AD). Throughout the past several years our laboratory has sought to determine the molecular mechanisms underlying the selective vulnerability of neurons in AD.2. Methods: To this end, we employed immunohistochemical, biochemical, and in situ hybrization methods to examine glutamate and -aminobutyric acid (GABA_A) receptor subtypes in the hippocampus of patients displaying the full spectrum of AD pathology.3. Results: Despite the fact that the hippocampus is characterized by a marked loss of neurons in the late stages of the disease, our data demonstrate a rather remarkable preservation among some glutamate and GABA_A receptor subtypes.4. Conclusions: Collectively, our data support the view that the relatively constant levels of selected receptor subtypes represent a compensatory up-regulation of these receptors subunits in surviving neurons. The demonstration that glutamate and GABA receptor subunits are comparably unaffected implies that even in the terminal stages of the disease the brain is attempting to maintain a balance in excitatory and inhibitory tone. Our data also support the concept that receptor subunits are differentially affected in AD with some subunits displaying no change while others display alterations in protein and mRNA levels within selected regions of the hippocampus. Although many of these changes are modest, they do suggest that the subunit composition of these receptors may be altered and hence affect the pharmacokinetic and physiological properties of the receptor. The latter findings stress the importance of understanding the subunit composition of individual glutamate/GABA receptors in the diseased brain prior to the development of drugs targeted towards those receptors.     

Taurine Interaction with Neurotransmitter Receptors in the CNS: An Update

Taurine appears to have multiple functions in the brain participating both in volume regulation and neurotransmission. In the latter context it may exert its actions by serving as an agonist at receptors of the GABAergic and glycinergic neurotransmitter systems. Its interaction with GABA_A and GABA_B receptors as well as with glycine receptors is reviewed and the physiological relevance of such interactions is evaluated. The question as to whether local extracellular concentrations of taurine are likely to reach the threshold level for the pertinent receptor populations cannot presently be answered satisfactorily. Hence more sophisticated analytical methods are warranted in order to obtain a definite answer to this important question. Special issue dedicated to Dr. Simo S. Oja     

MicroRNAs参与调控中枢神经系统的发育及脊髓损伤修复

microRNAs（miRNAs）不仅参与神经系统的生长发育、功能完善,还参与脊髓损伤病理及损伤后修复过程。miRNAs能使中枢神经系统按正确的时序性和空间性顺序进行发育和分化,在维持生物体记忆及生物钟方面起着重要作用。miRNAs异常表达同脊髓损伤病理过程相关。目前,体内及体外实验均已证实,miRNAs不仅能够维持神经干细胞增殖,而且可以促进神经元轴突伸长,从而为脊髓损伤的治疗带来新的治疗策略。     

肝干细胞的可塑性和分化机理的研究进展

对肝干细胞的可塑性、多向分化潜能、分化机理及其与肝癌发病机制的关系等方面进行综述.肝干细胞是一类具有自我更新能力和多向分化潜能的细胞. 在不同的条件下,肝干细胞可分化为肝细胞、胆上皮细胞、胰腺细胞和肠上皮细胞. 肝干细胞的分化涉及微环境、细胞因子和细胞外基质等多种调控因素. 肝干细胞分化为成熟肝细胞受多种转录因子和信号通路的调节,其分化异常有可能诱发形成肝细胞癌.     

过氧化体增殖剂激活的受体及其功能

过氧化体增殖剂激活的受体(PPARs)是1990年发现的核激素受体家族的一个新成员.其三种亚型α、β、γ具有配体特异性和组织分布的特异性.PPARs在控制炎症反应、脂质代谢、细胞增生和分化等方面发挥重要作用,研究表明PPARs与一些慢性疾病如癌症、动脉粥样硬化等有密切关系.     

Role of Cell Cycle Proteins in CNS Injury

Following trauma or ischemia to the central nervous system (CNS), there is a marked increase in the expression of cell cycle-related proteins. This up-regulation is associated with apoptosis of post-mitotic cells, including neurons and oligodendrocytes, both in vitro and in vivo. Cell cycle activation also induces proliferation of astrocytes and microglia, contributing to the glial scar and microglial activation with release of inflammatory factors. Treatment with cell cycle inhibitors in CNS injury models inhibits glial scar formation and neuronal cell death, resulting in substantially decreased lesion volumes and improved behavioral recovery. Here we critically review the role of cell cycle pathways in the pathophysiology of experimental stroke, traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury, and discuss the potential of cell cycle inhibitors as neuroprotective agents. Special issue dedicated to Dr. Moussa Youdim.     

P2 Receptors of microglia: sensors for danger signals in the CNS

Following tissue damage or invasion by pathogens a number of soluble signals are generated to alert the immune system of the impending danger and initiate inflammation. Some danger signals are released from injured or dying cells. Once released, danger signals activate a autocrine/paracrine network that recruits inflammatory cells, stimulates cytokine production, promotes dendritic cell maturations and increases the antigen (Ag) presenting efficiency. These events also occurs in the central nervous system (CNS) where cytokines and cytokine-releasing cells have a central role in spreading inflammation. P2 receptors of microglia are the focus of increasing interest, especially after they were shown to mediate chemotaxis, cytokine release and cell death in microglia. We propose that P2 receptors may function in microglia as sensors of the ATP/UTP concentration in the pericellular space, and therefore as sensors of danger signals in the CNS. Furthermore, microglia itself can release ATP when stimulated by inflammatory stimuli. Thus extracellular nucleotides may be included in the family of the early inflammatory mediators acting via P2 receptors to spread inflammation in the CNS.
References 1. Ferrari D., Villalba M., Chiozzi P., Falzoni S., Ricciardi-Castagnoli P. and Di Virgilio F. (1996) Mouse microglia cells express a plasma membrane pore gated by extracellular ATP. J. Immunol. 156 , 1531–1539.
2. Ferrari D., Chiozzi P., Falzoni S., Hanau S. and Di Virgilio F. (1997) Purinergic modulation of interleukin-1B release from microglia cells stimulated with bacterial endotoxin. J. Exp. Med. 185 , 579–582.     

Involvement of Toll-Like Receptors on Helicobacter pylori-Induced Immunity

Dendritic cells (DCs) play a major role in the innate immune response since they recognize a broad repertoire of PAMPs mainly via Toll-like receptors (TLRs). During Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection, TLRs have been shown to be important to control cytokine response particularly in murine DCs. In the present study we analyzed the effect of blocking TLRs on human DCs. Co-incubation of human DCs with H. pylori resulted in the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12p70, IL-6 and IL-10. Release of IL-12p70 and IL-10 was predominantly influenced when TLR4 signaling was blocked by adding specific antibodies, suggesting a strong influence on subsequent T cell responses through TLR4 activation on DCs. Co-incubation of H. pylori-primed DC with allogeneic CD4⁺ T cells resulted in the production of IFN-γ and IL-17A as well as the expression of Foxp3, validating a mixed Th1/Th17 and T_reg response in vitro. Neutralization of TLR4 during H. pylori infection resulted in significantly decreased amounts of IL-17A and IFN-γ and reduced levels of Foxp3-expressing and IL-10-secreting T cells. Our findings suggest that DC cytokine secretion induced upon TLR4-mediated recognition of H. pylori influences inflammatory and regulatory T cell responses, which might facilitate the chronic bacterial persistence.