Genetic risk factors for myocardial infarction more clearly manifest for early age of first onset

Epidemiological genetics established that heritability in determining the risk of myocardial infarction (MI) is substantially greater when MI occurs early in life. However, the genetic architecture of early-onset and late-onset MI was not compared. We analyzed genotype frequencies of SNPs in/near 20 genes whose protein products are involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in two groups of Russian patients with MI: the first group included patients with age of first MI onset <60 years (N?=?230) and the second group with onset ≥60 years (N?=?174). The control group of corresponding ethnicity consisted of 193 unrelated volunteers without cardiovascular diseases (93 individuals were over 60 years). We found that in the group of patients with age of onset <60 years, SNPs FGB rs1800788*T, TGFB1 rs1982073*T/T, ENOS rs2070744*C and CRP rs1130864*T/T were associated with risk of MI, whereas in patients with age of onset ≥60 years, only TGFB1 rs1982073*T/T was associated with risk of MI. Using APSampler software, we found composite markers associated with MI only in patients with early onset: FGB rs1800788*T?+?TGFB1 rs1982073*T; FGB rs1800788*T?+?LPL rs328*C?+?IL4 rs2243250*C; FGB rs1800788*T?+?ENOS rs2070744*C (Fisher p values of 1.4?×?10^?6 to 2.2?×?10^?5; the permutation p values of 1.1?×?10^?5 to 3.0?×?10^?4; ORs?=?2.67–2.54). Alleles included in the combinations were associated with MI less significantly and with lower ORs than the combinations themselves. The result showed a substantially greater contribution of the genetic component in the development of MI if it occurs early in life, and demonstrated the usefulness of genetic testing for young people.     

Phylogeography of endangered <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrobium moniliforme</Emphasis> in East Asia based on mitochondrial DNA sequence variations

Belonging to the genus Dendrobium of Orchidaceae, Dendrobium moniliforme is an endangered species with disjunct distribution in East Asia, possessing significant medicinal value. To investigate its phylogeography, this study compared sequences of two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) fragments (nad 1/b-c and nad 7/2-3) from 143 samples of 18 natural populations of D. moniliforme almost covering the entire range of the Sino-Japanese Floristic Region (SJFR) of East Asia. As a result, a total of 30 mtDNA haplotypes were identified in these populations which revealed high levels of haplotype diversity (H _d  = 0.8733) and total genetic diversity (H _T  = 0.8886). Additionally, G _ST value being significantly lower (0.451) than N _ST value (0.722) (P < 0.05) indicated the presence of strong phylogeographic structure in these populations, and the network of mtDNA haplotypes showed that all haplotypes were divided into two clades (A and B). Haplotype overlap was observed among several D. moniliforme population groups in mainland China, suggesting the occurrence of ongoing and/or historical gene flow among them. No common haplotypes were shared by D. moniliforme populations from mainland China and the CKJ Islands (representing Taiwan [China], South Korea, and Japan collectively), pointing to their allopatric evolution in the two regions. Moreover, mismatch distribution analysis and neutral test of mtDNA data rejected the population expansion model. According to the mtDNA-based results, we infer that multiple refugia for D. moniliforme existed in the SJFR of East Asia during the Quaternary glacial period.     

Plasma matrix metalloproteinase-9 levels, <Emphasis Type="Italic">MMP</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">9</Emphasis> gene haplotypes,and cardiovascular risk in obese subjects

Plasma matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 is a predictor of cardiovascular mortality, and MMP-9 polymorphisms affect plasma MMP-9 levels. However, no study examined whether MMP-9 haplotypes affect MMP-9 levels in obese adults. We examined whether MMP-9 polymorphisms and haplotypes are associated with obesity, and whether they affect MMP-9 levels in obese subjects. We examined the plasma levels of MMP-9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 in 105 subjects with normal weight (controls), 100 obese subjects, and 156 obese subjects with ≥3 metabolic risk factors (MRFs). We determined genotypes for three polymorphisms: C-1562T (rs3918242), Q279R (A>G, rs17576), and R668Q (G>A, rs17577). MMP-9 levels and activity (MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio) were higher in obese subjects than in controls (P < 0.05). However, MMP-9 levels were higher in obese subjects with ≥3 MRFs than in obese subjects (P < 0.05). Obese subjects with ≥3 MRFs carrying the GA+AA genotypes for R668Q (G>A) polymorphism had higher MMP-9 levels than subjects carrying the AA genotype (P < 0.05). The “T, G, A” haplotype was more common in both groups of obese subjects than in controls (OR 3.95 and 4.39, respectively; P < 0.01). Notably, obese subjects with ≥3 MRFs carrying the “T, G, A” haplotype had higher MMP-9 levels than subjects carrying the “C, A, G” reference haplotype (P < 0.05). The “T, G, A” haplotype was associated with an increased risk of obesity and affected MMP-9 levels in obese subjects with ≥3 MRFs. Our findings suggest that plasma MMP-9 levels and MMP-9 haplotypes may help to discriminate obese subjects at an increased cardiovascular risk.     

A Dutch <Emphasis Type="Italic">MYH7</Emphasis> founder mutation,p.(Asn1918Lys), is associated with early onset cardiomyopathy and congenital heart defects

Background

Mutations in the myosin heavy chain 7 (MYH7) gene commonly cause cardiomyopathy but are less frequently associated with congenital heart defects.

Methods

In this study, we describe a mutation in the MYH7 gene, c. 5754C > G; p. (Asn1918Lys), present in 15 probands and 65 family members.

Results

Of the 80 carriers (age range 0–88 years), 46 (57.5%) had cardiomyopathy (mainly dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)) and seven (8.8%) had a congenital heart defect. Childhood onset of cardiomyopathy was present in almost 10% of carriers. However, in only a slight majority (53.7%) was the left ventricular ejection fraction reduced and almost no arrhythmias or conduction disorders were noted. Moreover, only one carrier required heart transplantation and nine (11.3%) an implantable cardioverter defibrillator. In addition, the standardised mortality ratio for MYH7 carriers was not significantly increased. Whole exome sequencing in several cases with paediatric onset of DCM and one with isolated congenital heart defects did not reveal additional known disease-causing variants. Haplotype analysis suggests that the MYH7 variant is a founder mutation, and is therefore the first Dutch founder mutation identified in the MYH7 gene. The mutation appears to have originated in the western region of the province of South Holland between 500 and 900 years ago.

Conclusion

Clinically, the p. (Asn1918Lys) mutation is associated with congenital heart defects and/or cardiomyopathy at young age but with a relatively benign course.

     

Maternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus mugo</Emphasis> Turra: a case study of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus mugo</Emphasis> × <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> crossing

The opposite modes of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) inheritance were found to operate in the reciprocal crossings of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and mountain dwarf pine (Pinus mugo Turra). The crossings were found to be partially compatible. In P. sylvestris × P. mugo crossing, the paternal transmission of cpDNA to the offspring takes place corroborating the generally acknowledged concept of the paternal cpDNA inheritance in gymnosperms. On the contrary, in P. mugo × P. sylvestris crossing the seed progeny exhibited P. mugo haplotype of the mother tree deviating conspicuously from the above concept. In the open pollination offspring of the putatively hybrid individuals of the Scots and mountain dwarf pines, a biparental inheritance of cpDNA was revealed in mother tree with P. mugo haplotype indicating a loosened control of the maternal inheritance of cpDNA in the putative hybrids. Implications and impacts of this finding for further studies are discussed.     

A novel haplotype within C-reactive protein gene influences CRP levels and coronary heart disease risk in Northwest Indians

According to several epidemiological and clinical studies, the concentration of C-reactive protein (CRP) in blood is associated with the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). However, these studies are limited in high incidence and prevalence area of North-West India. The present case control study investigated the contribution of three relevant CRP single nucleotide polymorphisms: ?717A>G located in the promoter region (rs2794521), +1059G>C on exon2 (rs1800947) and +1444C>T in the 3′ UTR (rs1130864) in 180 angiographically verified CHD cases and 175 control subjects. Minor allele frequencies (G, C and T) of rs2794521, rs1800947 and rs1130864 are observed to be 21.1, 11.7, 29.4 and 11.4, 10.0, 19.7 % in CHD cases and controls respectively. AA genotype of ?717A>G and TT genotype of +1444C>T were significantly associated (P = 0.02 & 0.03 respectively) with the risk of CHD whereas, +1059G and +1444T were found to be strongly related (P = 0.023 & P = 0.008 respectively) with multivariable adjusted CRP levels. AGT Haplotype was significantly associated with the adjusted CRP levels (P < 0.05). Disease association analysis revealed that haplotype AGT influences CHD risk (OR 2.4, 95 % CI 1.23–4.84, P = 0.006) which exacerbates after correcting the confounding effects of risk variables (OR 2.5, 95 % CI 1.27–4.99, P = 0.004). With the global index of Akaike information criterion, it has been observed that the carrying each single unit of this susceptibility haplotype increases CHD risk by a value of 2.41 ± 0.439 (β ± SE) in the recessive mode.     

Genomic structure,expression and association study of the porcine <Emphasis Type="Italic">FSD2</Emphasis>

The fibronectin type III and SPRY domain containing 2 (FSD2) on porcine chromosome 7 is considered a candidate gene for pork quality, since its two domains, which were present in fibronectin and ryanodine receptor. The fibronectin type III and SPRY domains were first identified in fibronectin and ryanodine receptor, respectively, which are candidate genes for meat quality. The aim of this study was to elucidate the genomic structure of FSD2 and functions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within FSD2 that are related to meat quality in pigs. Using a bacterial artificial chromosome clone sequence, we revealed that porcine FSD2 consisted of 13 exons encoding 750 amino acids. In addition, FSD2 was expressed in heart, longissimus dorsi muscle, psoas muscle, and tendon among 23 kinds of porcine tissues tested. A total of ten SNPs, including four missense mutations, were identified in the exonic region of FSD2, and two major haplotypes were obtained based on the SNP genotypes of 633 Berkshire pigs. Both haplotypes were associated significantly with intramuscular fat content (IMF, P < 0.020) and moisture percentage (MP, P < 0.002). Moreover, haplotype 2 was associated with meat color, affecting yellowness (P = 0.002). These haplotype effects were further supported by the alteration of putative protein structures with amino acid substitutions. Taken together, our results suggest that FSD2 haplotypes are involved in regulating meat quality including IMF, MP, and meat color in pigs, and may be used as meaningful molecular makers to identify pigs with preferable pork quality.     

Analysis of Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Antigen-4 (CTLA-4) Promoter <Emphasis Type="Italic">−318C/T</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">+49A/G</Emphasis> Gene Polymorphisms in Turkish Patients with Familial Mediterranean Fever

Either the role of the adaptive immune system or the interaction between innate and adaptive immune systems in familial Mediterranean fever (FMF) is not clear so far. So, we planned to search for the interaction between the innate and adaptive immune systems in the pathogenesis of FMF by investigating polymorphism for CTLA-4 gene, which plays a role in controlling antigen presentation to T cells. We also aimed to investigate whether there is an association between ?318C/T and +49A/G polymorphisms in the CTLA-4 gene and the main clinical features of the disease. 75 FMF patients and 179 controls were studied. Polymorphism was detected by the PCR-RFLP technique. The CT genotype and T allele frequencies of the ?318C/T polymorphism and the haplotype frequency for the ?318T/+49A in the CTLA-4 gene were higher in the FMF (21.3, 21.3, and 10.7 %) when compared with the controls (10.6, 10.6, and 5.3 %; P = 0.029, 0.044, and 0.029). However, these differences did not reach a statistically significant level after the Bonferroni correction. A significant linkage disequilibrium was found between the ?318C/T and +49A/G polymorphisms in the CTLA-4 gene (D′ = 0.997, r² = 0.027, P = 0.0002). Genotype and carrier frequencies of the CTLA-4 gene +49A/G polymorphism were not significantly different between FMF patients and healthy controls. No association was found between the studied polymorphisms and the main clinical features of the disease. Our findings suggest that although not statistically significant, higher frequencies of CTLA-4 gene ?318CT genotype, T allele, and ?318T/+49A haplotype in FMF patients may be related to the non-autoimmune pathogenesis of FMF.     

Impact of Chemical,Organic and Bio-Fertilizers Application on Bell Pepper, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capsicum annuum</Emphasis> L. and Biological Parameters of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Myzus persicae</Emphasis> (Sulzer) (Hem.: Aphididae)

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) is a polyphagous aphid that causes chlorosis, necrosis, stunting, and reduce growth rate of the host plants. In this research, the effects of Zinc sulfate and vermicompost (30%), Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Glomus intraradices, G. intraradices × B. subtilis, and G. intraradices × P. fluorescens compared to control was investigated on the growth characters of Capsicum annuum L. and biological parameters of M. persicae. Different fertilizers caused a significant effect on growth characters of C. annuum and biological parameters of M. persicae. The highest plant growth was observed on Zinc sulfate and B. subtilis treated plants, and the lowest was on control. Increase in the amount of specific leaf area (SLA) (0.502 mm² mg^?1) was significantly higher in the B. subtilis than other fertilizer treatments. The longest (10.3 days) and the shortest (5.3 days) developmental times of M. persicae nymphs were observed on 30% vermicompost and Zinc sulfate treatments, respectively. The lowest adult longevity periods of M. persicae (11.2 and 11.3 days) were observed on G. intraradices × B. subtilis and 30% vermicompost treatments, respectively, and the longest ones (16.4 days) on Zinc sulfate. The highest rate of nymphal mortality and the lowest amount of nymphal growth index (NGI) were recorded on 30% vermicompost. The nymphs reared on Zinc sulfate treatment had the lowest rate of nymphal mortality and the highest amount of NGI. Thus, amending the soil with 30% vermicompost had a significantly negative effect on the biological parameters of M. persicae that can be used as an ecological control tactic for this pest.     

Geographic patterns of genetic variation in nuclear and chloroplast genomes of two related oaks (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus aliena</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Q. serrata</Emphasis>) in Japan: implications for seed and seedling transfer

In this study, we assessed geographic patterns of genetic variations in nuclear and chloroplast genomes of two related native oaks in Japan, Quercus aliena and Q. serrata, in order to facilitate development of genetic guidelines for transfer of planting stocks for each species. A total of 12 populations of Q. aliena and 44 populations of Q. serrata were analyzed in this study. Genotyping of nuclear microsatellites in Q. aliena was done with only nine populations (n = 212) due to limited numbers of individuals in two populations, while all 12 populations (n = 89) were used in sequencing chloroplast DNA (cpDNA). In Q. serrata, 43 populations (n = 1032) were genotyped by nuclear microsatellite markers, while cpDNA of 44 populations (n = 350) was sequenced. As anticipated, geographic patterns detected in the variations of Q. aliena’s nuclear genome and its chloroplast haplotype distribution clearly distinguished northern and southern groups of populations. However, those of Q. serrata were inconsistent. The geographic distribution of its chloroplast haplotypes tends to show the predicted differentiation between northern and southern lineages, but geographic signals in the genetic structure of its nuclear microsatellites are weak. Therefore, treating northern and southern regions of Japan as genetically distinct transferrable zones for planting stocks is highly warranted for Q. aliena. For Q. serrata, the strong NE-SW geographic structure of cpDNA should be considered.     

Nitrogen-induced variations in leaf gas exchange of spring triticale under field conditions

Nitrogen (N) is the key factor limiting photosynthetic processes and crop yield. Little is known about the response of leaf gas exchange of spring triticale (Triticosecale Wittm.) to N supply. The effect of N fertilizers on different gas exchange variables, i.e., photosynthetic rate (A), transpiration rate (E), stomatal conductance (g _s), instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE) and maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII) (F _v/F _m), chlorophyll index (SPAD, soil–plant analysis development), and the relationship of these variables with yield were studied in spring triticale grown under field conditions. Six treatments of N—0, 90, 180, 90 + 30, 90 + 30 + 30 kg ha^?1 (applied as ammonium nitrate, AN) and one treatment of N 90 + 30 + 30 kg ha^?1 (applied as urea ammonium nitrate solution, UAN) were compared. The analysis of variance showed that throughout the triticale growing season, N fertilization had significant effects on A, WUE, g _s and SPAD. On average, N fertilizer application increased A values by 14–70%. E and F _v/F _m values were not influenced by N fertilization levels. The effect of growth stage and year on gas exchange variables and F _v/F _m and SPAD was found to be significant. At different growth stages, A values varied and maximum ones were reached at BBCH 31–33 (decimal code system of growth stages) and BBCH 59. With aging, values of A decreased independently of N fertilization level. The gas exchange variables were equally affected by both fertilizer forms. The interplay among grain yield, leaf gas exchange variables, F _v/F _m and SPAD of spring triticale was estimated. The statistical analysis showed that grain yield positively and significantly correlated with A and SPAD values throughout the growing season.     

Suitability of edaphic arthropods as prey for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Proctolaelaps bickleyi</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cosmolaelaps brevistilis</Emphasis> (Acari: Mesostigmata: Melicharidae,Laelapidae) under laboratory conditions

Soils are often complex habitats inhabited by a wide range of organisms, some harmful to plants and others beneficial, for example by attacking harmful organisms. Beneficial organisms include predatory mites, some of which have been commercialized for biological control of pest insects and mites. The objective of this work was to evaluate under laboratory condition the suitability of representative soil insect and mite pests, especially Aceria tulipae (Keifer), as prey to the soil-inhabiting predatory mites Proctolaelaps bickleyi (Bram) and Cosmolaelaps brevistilis (Karg). Predation, oviposition and survivorship of recently molted adult females of the predators were assessed in the dark in rearing chambers at 25 ± 1 °C and 75 ± 3% RH. Predation rate by P. bickleyi on A. tulipae was significantly higher than that by C. brevistilis (196.3 vs. 71.0 specimens/day). About 482 A. tulipae were preyed by each P. bickleyi at each day, when 500 A. tulipae were made available daily to the predator. Oviposition rate on that prey was also higher for P. bickleyi (4.2 eggs/day). For C. brevistilis, the highest level of oviposition was on Caliothrips phaseoli (Hood) (1.2 eggs/day). Survivorship was always higher for C. brevistilis (≥ 70%), given its ability to remain alive relatively long even in the absence of prey. High rates of survivorship of P. bickleyi were observed on A. tulipae, Bradysia matogrossensis (Lane) and Protorhabditis sp. Promising results were obtained for P. bickleyi on A. tulipae and even on other prey, justifying the conduction of complementary studies under field condition.     

Associations of rs3740677 within <Emphasis Type="Italic">GAB2</Emphasis> Gene with LOAD in Chinese Han Population

GRB2-associated binding protein 2 (GAB2) has been identified as a crucial factor in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and ten common variants within GAB2 have been detected to be associated with AD onset risk in genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Here, we first screened a common locus (rs3740677) in 3′ UTR of GAB2 sequence which is targeted by the miRNA-185 and initiatively explored the probable associations of rs3740677 with risk for late-onset AD (LOAD) in a large scale case–control study from Chinese Han populations (992 LOAD patients and 1358 healthy subjects). Eventually, the genotype (P?=?0.024) and allele (P?=?0.008) distribution of rs3740677 showed significant difference between LOAD and control group, and we observed a significant association of T allele in rs3740677 with LOAD risk in multivariate analysis and it decreased the risk for LOAD (dominant: OR?=?0.831, 95 % CI?=?0.702–0.983, P?=?0.031; additive: OR?=?0.855, 95 % CI?=?0.745–0.983, P?=?0.027) adjusted for age, gender, and APOE ε4 status. Our study further confirmed the association of GAB2 and AD. However, the absolute and correct association of rs3740677 with AD still required more investigations in diverse regions and ethnics.     

Alterations in Digestive Enzymes of Three Freshwater Teleostean Fishes by Almix Herbicide: A Comparative Study

Three freshwater teleostean fishes viz., Anabas testudineus (Bloch), Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) and Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus) were exposed to almix (66.67 mg/l) herbicide for 30 days to investigate the activity of digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase and protease) in stomach, intestine and liver. Amylase activity showed significantly high (p < 0.05) in all the fishes compared to control value and highest activity was observed in liver of A. testudineus (721.99 %) and minimum in intestine of H. fossilis (195.37 %). Lipase activity was also significantly increased (p < 0.05) in all the tissues; but highest in intestine of O. niloticus (235.51 %) and minimum in intestine of A. testudineus (130.51 %). Protease activity also showed similar trends of enhancement; it was maximum in stomach of O. niloticus (362.69 %), whereas in liver of H. fossilis it was rather less (173.72 %). Increased activity of digestive enzymes resulting from tissue damage ultimately affected the fish health due to impairment of digestive physiology confirming the herbicidal contamination on fish species. The sensitivity to the almix herbicide was pronounced in the order of O. niloticus > A. testudineus > H. fossilis.     

Continued feeding on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diporeia</Emphasis> by deepwater sculpin in Lake Huron

Monitoring changes in diets of fish is essential to understanding how food web dynamics respond to changes in native prey abundances. In the Great Lakes, Diporeia, a benthic macroinvertebrate and primary food of native benthivores, declined following the introduction of invasive Dreissena mussels and these changes were reflected in fish diets. We examined the diets of deepwater sculpin Myoxocephalus thompsonii collected in bottom trawls during 2010–2014 in the main basin of Lake Huron, and compared these results to an earlier diet study (2003–2005) to assess if their diets have continued to change after a prolonged period of Dreissena mussel invasion and declined Diporeia densities. Diporeia, Mysis, Bythotrephes, and Chironomidae were consumed regularly and other diet items included ostracods, copepods, sphaerid clams, and fish eggs. The prey-specific index of relative importance calculated for each prey group indicated that Mysis importance increased at shallow (≤55 m) and mid (64–73 m) depths, while Diporeia importance increased offshore (≥82 m). The average number of Diporeia consumed per fish increased by 10.0% and Mysis decreased by 7.5%, while the frequency of occurrence of Diporeia and Mysis remained comparable between time periods. The weight of adult deepwater sculpin (80 mm and 100 mm TL bins) increased between time periods; however, the change in weight was only significant for the 80 mm TL group (p?<?0.01). Given the historical importance of Diporeia in the Great Lakes, the examination of deepwater sculpin diets provides unique insight into the trophic dynamics of the benthic community in Lake Huron.     

Promoter polymorphism MMP-1 (-1607 2G/1G) and MMP-3 (-1612 5A/6A) in development of HAND and modulation of pathogenesis of HAND

The pathogenesis of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) is modulated by host genetic susceptibility factors such as Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Promoter polymorphism of MMP-1 and MMP-3 may modify the expression of the gene. Hence, we evaluated the association of MMP-1-16072G/1G and MMP-3-1612 5A/6A polymorphisms with development of HAND and the modulation of pathogenesis of HAND. We enrolled a total of 180 individuals, 50 HIV-infected individuals with HAND, 130 without HAND, and 150 healthy controls. Polymorphism of MMP-1 and MMP-3 were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. MMP-1-1607 2G1G, -16071G/2G-1G/1G genotypes and -1607 1G allele were associated with the development of HAND (OR = 1.64, P = 0.05; OR = 1.45, P = 0.04; OR = 1.69, P = 0.05). MMP-1-16071G1G, MMP-3-16125A5A genotypes increased the risk for the development of HAND (OR = 1.78, P = 0.25; OR = 2.39, P = 0.13). MMP-3-1612 5A5A, -1612 6A/5A-5A/5A genotypes and -1612 5A allele were associated with the reduced risk of HAND (OR = 0.40, P = 0.05; OR = 0.53, P = 0.04; OR = 0.40, P = 0.01). Haplotype 5A1G increased the risk of development of HAND (OR = 1.93, P = 0.05). As observed in advanced HIV disease stage, MMP-1-1607 1G1G genotype enhance the risk for advancement of HIV disease (OR = 1.69, P = 0.89). MMP-3-1612 6A5A genotype showed higher risk for development of HAND in alcohol users (0R = 1.65, P = 0.44). MMP-1 genotype may have an influence on development of HAND whereas MMP3-1612 5A5A genotype may reduce risk for pathogenesis of HAND.     

Genetic population structure and low genetic diversity in the over-exploited sea cucumber <Emphasis Type="Italic">Holothuria edulis</Emphasis> Lesson, 1830 (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) in Okinawa Island

Understanding genetic connectivity is fundamental for ecosystem-based management of marine resources. Here we investigate the metapopulation structure of the edible sea cucumber Holothuria edulis Lesson, 1830 across Okinawa Island, Japan. This species is of economic and ecological importance and is distributed from the Red Sea to Hawai‘i. We examined sequence variation in fragments of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and 16S ribosomal RNA (16S), and nuclear histone (H3) at six locations across Okinawa Island. We found higher haplotype diversity for mtDNA (COI: Hd = 0.69 and 16S: Hd = 0.67) and higher heterozygosity of nDNA (H3: H _E = 0.39) in populations from the west coast of Okinawa compared to individuals from populations on the east coast (COI: Hd = 0.40; 16S: Hd = 0.21; H3: H _E = 0.14). Overall population structure was significant (AMOVA results for COI: Φ _ST = 0.49, P < 0.0001; 16S: Φ _ST = 0.34, P < 0.0001; H3: Φ _ST = 0.12, P < 0.0001). One population in the east, Uruma, showed elevated pairwise Φ _ST values in comparisons with all other sites and a marked reduction of genetic diversity (COI: Hd = 0.25 and 16S: Hd = 0.24), possibly as a consequence of a shift to a more dominant asexual reproduction mode. Recent reports have indicated that coastal development in this area influences many marine organisms, and ecosystem degradation in this location could cause the observed decrease of genetic diversity and isolation of H. edulis in Uruma. Our study should provide valuable data to help with the urgently needed management of sea cucumber populations in Okinawa, and indicates particular attention needs to be paid to vulnerable locations.