绿色基础设施的洪水调节服务供需测度研究进展

绿色基础设施(green infrastructure, GI)可提供高效且可获取的洪水调节服务,其供需测度是提升服务水平的基础与前提,可为城市土地利用与绿色基础设施规划提供决策依据。以GI洪水调节服务供需为研究对象,梳理GI洪水调节服务供需的概念内涵、主体构成和尺度关系。回顾了GI洪水调节服务供需测度方法,包括土地利用测度法、生态系统测度法和洪水调蓄模型法等供应水平测度方法,以及风险评估法、洪水淹没模型法和经济损失法等需求水平测度方法。基于生态系统服务的供需关系,构建了GI洪水调节服务供需分析框架,通过供需数量均衡和空间匹配将供需关系分为四种情景,对应服务动态平衡、调整服务供需水平和服务流动机制3种调控手段。从服务测度重点、动态变化分析、供需阈值效能、服务流动机制等四个方面提出了未来研究方向,以期对绿色基础设施规划研究和生态系统服务管理与决策研究有所启示。     

延河流域水供给服务供需平衡与服务流研究

水供给服务的供需定量评估与空间制图是当前研究的核心与前沿议题,然而耦合人类需求与自然过程进行供需时空关联分析和服务流模拟仍需进一步加强。以延河流域为研究区,基于GIS手段和SWAT模型,融合多源数据构建了水供给服务供需平衡与空间流动模型,从子流域尺度探究了延河流域水供给服务的供需空间匹配特征与流动规律,明确流域供给区和受益区的空间范围与流量。研究结果表明:1)2005—2015年延河流域水供给量先增多后减少,水需求量则逐年增多,供需平衡状况在逐年恶化。到2015年,流域的水资源安全指数(Freshwater Security Index,FSI)仅为0.095。2)延河流域水供给服务的供给与需求在空间分布上呈现显著的不匹配特征,尤其是位于延河中游的延安市区及周边地区,水资源供需矛盾突出。3)在水供给服务流研究的框架下,本文明确了流域内4个主要受益区的空间范围及其接受的相应上游子流域(供给区)提供的服务流量,分别为安塞城区、延安市区、青化砭镇、延长县城区及其附近城镇。本评估模型与研究结果不仅可以为实现延河流域水资源的合理配置和保障流域用水安全提供科学依据,也可以为其他流域的水资源管理提供参考。     

基于矩阵分析的水文调节服务供需关系时空分异研究——以嘉兴市为例

生态系统服务供需关系的识别、度量、空间化分析对自然资源合理配置有重要的意义。以嘉兴市为研究区,以2005年Landsat7 ETM+影像和2015年Landsat8 OLI传感器影像为数据源,采用生态系统服务供需关系矩阵法,分析嘉兴市水文调节服务供给能力与需求水平的时空分异特征。结果表明:(1)2005—2015年10年间,嘉兴市处于快速城市化阶段,土地利用变化明显,建设用地显著增加,水域、水田面积有所增加,旱地、园地、林地大量减少。(2)土地利用变化是影响水文调节服务供需关系的主要因素,研究发现嘉兴市大部分地区水文调节服务处于供不应求的状态。(3)随着建设用地的不断扩张,导致水文调节服务供需矛盾加剧,供不应求区域由中心城区向城市边缘区扩大。(4)水文调节服务需求区域的变化与人类活动密切相关,供给区域受制于自然环境的数量与质量,生态系统服务供给与需求存在错位,促进了生态系统服务流的产生,并需要政策引导。     

Uncertainty of Monetary Valued Ecosystem Services – Value Transfer Functions for Global Mapping

Growing demand of resources increases pressure on ecosystem services (ES) and biodiversity. Monetary valuation of ES is frequently seen as a decision-support tool by providing explicit values for unconsidered, non-market goods and services. Here we present global value transfer functions by using a meta-analytic framework for the synthesis of 194 case studies capturing 839 monetary values of ES. For 12 ES the variance of monetary values could be explained with a subset of 93 study- and site-specific variables by utilizing boosted regression trees. This provides the first global quantification of uncertainties and transferability of monetary valuations. Models explain from 18% (water provision) to 44% (food provision) of variance and provide statistically reliable extrapolations for 70% (water provision) to 91% (food provision) of the terrestrial earth surface. Although the application of different valuation methods is a source of uncertainty, we found evidence that assuming homogeneity of ecosystems is a major error in value transfer function models. Food provision is positively correlated with better life domains and variables indicating positive conditions for human well-being. Water provision and recreation service show that weak ownerships affect valuation of other common goods negatively (e.g. non-privately owned forests). Furthermore, we found support for the shifting baseline hypothesis in valuing climate regulation. Ecological conditions and societal vulnerability determine valuation of extreme event prevention. Valuation of habitat services is negatively correlated with indicators characterizing less favorable areas. Our analysis represents a stepping stone to establish a standardized integration of and reporting on uncertainties for reliable and valid benefit transfer as an important component for decision support.     

Assessing regulating and provisioning ecosystem services in a contrasting tropical forest landscape

Ecosystem services are the bridge between nature and society, and are essential elements of community well-being. The Wet Tropics Australia, is environmentally and biologically diverse, and supplies numerous ecosystem services. It contributes to the community well-being of this region, Australian national economy and global climate change mitigation efforts. However, the ecosystem services in the region have rarely been assessed undermining strategic landscape planning to sustain their future flow. In this study, we attempted to: (i) assess the quantity of five regulating ecosystem services – global climate regulation, air quality regulation, erosion regulation, nutrient regulation, and cyclone protection, and three provisioning ecosystem services – habitat provision, energy provision and timber provision across rainforests, sclerophyll forests and rehabilitated plantation forests; (ii) evaluate the variation of supply of those regulating and provisioning ecosystem services across environmental gradients, such as rainfall, temperature, and elevation; (iii) show the relationships among those ecosystem services; and (iv) identify the hotspots of single and multiple ecosystem services supply across the landscape. The results showed that rainforests possess a very high capacity to supply single and multiple ecosystem services, and the hotspots for most of the regulating and provisioning ecosystem services are found in upland rainforest followed by lowland rainforest, and upland sclerophyll forest. Elevation, rainfall and temperature gradients along with forest structure are the main determinant factors for the quantity of ecosystem services supplied across the three forest types. The correlation among ecosystem services may be positive or negative depending on the ecosystem service category and vegetation type. The rehabilitated plantation forests may provide some ecosystem services comparable to the rainforest. The results demonstrated disturbance regimes (such as tropical cyclones) may have influenced the usual spatial trend of ecosystem service values. This study will assist decision makers in incorporating ecosystem services into their natural resource management planning, and for practitioners to identify the areas with higher values of specific and multiple ecosystem services.     

西南地区生态系统服务供需历史变化与SSP-RCP情景预测

生态系统服务的供需平衡对实现可持续发展至关重要。为了更好地了解过去气候变化和社会经济发展对生态系统服务的影响,并对未来不同气候和社会经济发展情景做出正确响应,有必要对生态系统服务的供需变化进行系统的评估和预测。研究对我国西南地区2000、2010、2015年的水源涵养、食物生产和固碳3项生态系统服务的供给和需求进行了定量的空间评估,然后基于IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)提出的社会经济发展和气候变化联合情景框架,即SSP-RCP情景(Shared Socio-economic Pathways-Representative Concentration Pathways),对此3项生态系统服务在未来2035年和2050年的供给和需求进行了SSP1-RCP2.6、SSP2-RCP4.5、SSP4-RCP6.0和SSP5-RCP8.5 4个情景下的预测。结果显示,西南地区水源涵养和固碳服务的供给和需求具有显著的空间不匹配特征,且其需求从2000—2015年分别增长了11.49%和252.41%。根据SSP-RCP情景预测结果,水源...     

Impacts of habitat heterogeneity on the provision of multiple ecosystem services in a temperate floodplain

The relationships between habitat heterogeneity and the provision of multiple ecosystem services are not well understood. This study investigates the impacts of heterogeneity in surface floodwater inundation on the productive efficiency of ecosystem service provision, and the degree to which the relative provision of these ecosystem services is evenly balanced. We analyse indicators of five services. Field data from 100 floodplain quadrats were first analysed to investigate relationships between ecosystem service indicators and floodplain hydrology. Floodplain mosaics of varying hydrological heterogeneity were then simulated using the empirical data. Simulated floodplains with higher hydrological heterogeneity were generally less efficient in providing the target indicators, because they were adapted to the particular hydrological ranges which best provided the target services. Simulated floodplains that were more heterogeneous generally provided more even levels of the target indicators by segregating provision into different habitat types. Heterogeneity in floodplain hydrology may help to balance provision of multiple ecosystem services. However, management of hydrological heterogeneity to achieve this requires a detailed understanding of the relationships between each service and habitat conditions.     

水源涵养与水文调节:和而不同的陆地生态系统水文服务

水与生态系统的关系是重要的科学问题,并且受到社会广泛关注。水源涵养和水文调节都是陆地生态系统所能提供的水文服务,并从生态水文和水资源角度把生态系统的健康和完整性与人类社会的持续发展紧密联系起来,从而也要求动态和综合的视角加以深入研究。基于生态水文过程原理,对水源涵养和水文调节的概念进行了辨析,认为前者是后者的有机组成部分,相对具体、应用中务求精确明晰;后者则更具包容性、客观性和广泛适用性。文章进一步简要分析了当前国内外生态系统水源涵养和水文调节服务的主导评估方法,结果表明,水源涵养的评估以储水量法为主,而水文调节则以基于降水和蒸散的水量平衡法及综合模型法(如SWAT)为主。从生态系统服务相互作用的角度考量,实际上水源涵养和水文调节及其相关的其它服务类型(如固碳、土壤保持、生物生产、淡水供给等)存在着复杂的动态权衡或协同关系,在科学研究和生态系统管理实践中必须统筹考虑,以确保对科学问题的准确把握和促进"水-生态-社会系统"的高效、可持续发展。为此,必须加强对生态水文过程的长期观测和实验研究,并且关注空间异质性及尺度效应、时间动态性和利益相关者需求的多维性。     

结合生态系统服务供需和人类福祉的区域规划

生态系统服务与人类福祉的和谐关系是区域规划的基石。现有的区域规划较少同时考虑生态系统服务的供需和流域居民的福祉差异。以城市化流域——官厅水库流域为例,应用改进后的CASA模型、IPCC清单法、SolVES模型和问卷调查量化食物供给、碳固持和文化服务以及人类福祉,再结合服务的供需关系及人类福祉水平开展聚类分区,并针对各区情况提出规划建议。结果显示,官厅水库流域内食物供给和文化服务供大于求,而碳固持服务供不应求。流域福祉位于中等水平,分值为3.44(满分5分)。其中,居民的基本物质需求分值最高(3.64),收入分值(3.00)明显低于流域整体水平。除此之外,居民认为供水、医疗条件和收入这些福祉要素仍有待改善。流域可分为城市发展区、城郊休闲区、生态涵养区和文化建设区。在各区需采用因地制宜的方式,通过增大植被覆盖面、开展文旅产业和推动冰雪项目等形式,提高居民生活质量和维持区域可持续性。     

Linking biodiversity indicators,ecosystem functioning,provision of services and human well-being in estuarine systems: Application of a conceptual framework

Assuming that human well-being strongly relies on the services provided by well-functioning ecosystems, changes in the ecological functioning of any system can have direct and indirect effects on human welfare. Intensive land use and tourism have expanded in recent decades along coastal ecosystems, together with increasing demands for water, food and energy; all of these factors intensify the exploitation of natural resources. Many of the interrelations between ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services (ES) still require quantification in estuarine systems. A conceptual framework to assess such links in a spatially and temporally explicit manner is proposed and applied to the Mondego estuary (Portugal). This framework relies on three consecutive steps and discriminates among biodiversity structural components, ecosystem functioning and stability and the services provided by the ecosystem.Disturbances in abiotic factors were found to have a direct effect on biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ES. The observed changes in the species composition of communities had a positive effect on the ecosystem's productivity and stability. Moreover, the observed changes in the estuarine ES provision are likely to arise from changing structural and abiotic factors and in the present case from the loss or decline of locally abundant species. This study also indicates that linear relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and services provision are unlikely to occur in estuarine systems. Instead, cumulative and complex relations are observed between factors on both temporal and spatial scales. In this context, the results suggest several additional conclusions: (1) biodiversity and ecosystem functioning interaction with human well-being need to be incorporated into decision-making processes aimed at the conservative management of systems; (2) the institutional use of research results must be part of the design and implementation of sustainable management activities; and (3) more integrative tools/studies are required to account for the interactions of estuarine ecosystems with surrounding socio-economic activities. Therefore, when performing integrated assessments of ecosystem dynamics, it becomes essential to consider not only the effects of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning on services provision but also the effects that human well-being and ES provision may have on estuarine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.The proposed framework implies taking into account both the functional and the commodities points of view upon natural ecosystems and by this representing a line of thought which will deserve further research to explore more in detail the conceptual links between biodiversity–ecosystem functioning–services provided.     

基于水量与水质的太湖流域水生态服务供需关系及多情景评估

耦合水量供给与水质净化的水生态服务供需关系的多尺度空间量化评估,有助于刻画和识别丰水区水质性缺水问题,并丰富水生态服务研究。在构建水量供给和水质净化服务供需评估方法的基础上,利用空间分析方法在现状情景基础上分别设置提升用水效率、改善土地管理方式和优化土地利用空间配置三种优化情景,并在栅格、子流域和县域三个尺度上开展基于水量供给和水质净化的水生态服务供需关系的定量评估,分别探讨了不同情景不同尺度下的水生态服务供需变化、空间响应及其机制特征。研究结果表明：(1)太湖流域的水量供需状况显著优于水质供需状况,节水能够有效改善流域内的水量赤字,而减量施肥和优化土地利用配置能够显著改善流域内的水质赤字。(2)多尺度的水量供给与水质净化服务供需解析,有助于精准识别不同尺度下亟需治理的关键区域。(3)水量赤字区主要集中在建设用地分布区域,耕地仍是引致水质赤字的主要原因,但随着尺度的逐渐增大,水质赤字区的建设用地面积也在不断增加。(4)优化土地利用结构方案是解决水质性缺水的最有效方法,但需要突破现有政策尤其是耕地保护政策的刚性约束,故耦合提升用水效率等方法是当前治理太湖流域“水质性缺水”问题首选措施。     

Mapping ecosystem services: The supply and demand of flood regulation services in Europe

Ecosystem services (ES) feature highly distinctive spatial and temporal patterns of distribution, quantity, and flows. The flow of ecosystem goods and services to beneficiaries plays a decisive role in the valuation of ES and the successful implementation of the ES concept in environmental planning. This is particularly relevant to regulating services where demands emerge often spatially separated from supply. However, spatial patterns of both supply and demand are rarely incorporated in ES assessments on continental scales. In this paper, we present an ES modeling approach with low data demand, fit to be employed in scenario analysis and on multiple scales. We analyze flood regulation services at a European scale by explicitly addressing the spatial distribution of ES demand. A flood regulation supply indicator is developed based on scenario runs with a hydrological model in representative river catchments, incorporating detailed information on land, cover, land use and management. Land use sensitive flood damage estimates in the European Union (EU) are employed to develop a spatial indicator for flood regulation demand. Findings are transferred to the EU territory to create a map of the current supply of flood regulation and the potential supply under conditions of natural vegetation. Regions with a high capacity to provide flood regulation are mainly characterized by large patches of natural vegetation or extensive agriculture. The main factor limiting supply on a continental scale is a low water holding capacity of the soil. Flood regulation demand is highest in central Europe, at the foothills of the Alps and upstream of agglomerations. We were able to identify areas with a high potential capacity to provide flood regulation in conjunction with land use modifications. When combined with spatial patterns of current supply and demand, we could identify priority areas for investments in ES flood regulation supply through conservation and land use planning. We found that only in a fraction of the EU river catchments exhibiting a high demand, significant increases in flood regulation supply are achievable by means of land use modifications.     

Mapping Soil Erosion Prevention Using an Ecosystem Service Modeling Framework for Integrated Land Management and Policy

Current spatially explicit approaches to map and assess ecosystem services are often grounded on unreliable proxy data based on land use/cover to derive ecosystem service indicators. These approaches fail to make a distinction between the actual service provision and the underlying ecosystem capacity to provide the service. We present an integrative conceptual framework to estimate the provision of soil erosion prevention by combining the structural impact of soil erosion and the social–ecological processes that allow for its mitigation. The framework was tested and illustrated in the Portel municipality in Southern Portugal, a Mediterranean silvo-pastoral system that is prone to desertification and soil degradation. The results show a clear difference in the spatial and temporal distribution of the capacity for ecosystem service provision and the actual ecosystem service provision. It also shows that although the average actual ecosystem service provision in the region is sufficient to mitigate the existing structural impact, vulnerable areas can be identified where significant soil losses are not mitigated at present. This becomes more significant when comparing different land management intensities. Considering these results, we argue that the general assumption that there is an almost direct relation between the capacity for ecosystem service provision of a given area and the actual ecosystem service provision is wrong. We also discuss how the framework presented here could be used to support land management and policy, and how it can be adapted for other regulating services.     

生态系统服务供给和需求研究评述及框架体系构建

生态系统服务供给和需求联系着自然生态系统与社会经济系统,对生态系统服务供给和需求的研究有助于加强生态系统管理和实现资源优化配置,从而保障区域生态安全与社会经济可持续发展。本文在系统梳理国内外相关研究的基础上,对生态系统服务供给和需求的概念内涵、评估方法和实践应用等方面进行全面综述。从理论发展的角度看,虽然目前已取得较为丰富的研究成果,但是现有研究仍较为分散,缺乏统一的生态系统服务供需研究框架体系。鉴于此,本文在对生态系统服务供给和需求的研究范畴进行拓展的基础上,按照“理论-方法-实践”相统一的研究脉络,构建了“定性-定位-定量-定策”的生态系统服务供给和需求研究框架体系,最后提出未来研究应围绕“重点关注生态系统服务供给和需求的空间转移规律、加强生态系统服务供给和需求的定量方法研究、深化生态系统服务供给和需求应用管理实践和建立生态系统服务供给和需求应用评价机制”等方面展开,以期促进生态系统服务供给和需求的理论与实践研究。     

区域生态系统服务供需风险时空演变特征——以陕西省产水服务为例

生态系统服务评估是地理学与生态学研究的重要议题。目前的生态系统服务评估研究主要着眼于服务供给能力的退化风险评估,缺乏将服务的供需匹配特征、供需动态变化趋势以及服务之间的权衡协同关系综合考虑的生态系统服务风险评价框架及案例研究。首先通过系统地梳理生态系统服务供需风险评估研究进展,提出了区域尺度的生态系统服务供需风险研究框架,并以陕西省产水服务为例进行案例分析,揭示其供需风险时空格局变化特征。讨论了生态系统服务供需风险评估的影响因素、研究意义和未来研究方向。结果显示:①在产水服务供需时空格局方面,2000—2010年陕西省产水服务供给与需求总量均有所增加。陕南地区是主要的产水服务供给区,而产水服务需求量较大的地区主要分布在关中地区和汉中盆地。②在产水服务供需匹配方面,2010年陕西省产水服务供给不能满足需求的区域相对于2000年减少3.93%,供需空间匹配状况整体有所改善。③在产水服务供需风险方面,2000—2010年陕西省产水服务供需高风险区域占全省的13.37%,主要分布在关中地区和榆林市;低风险区域占全省的86.63%,主要分布在陕南地区以及延安市和宝鸡市。与2000—2005年相比,2005—2010年陕西省产水服务供需风险水平明显降低,高风险区域比重减少1.63%。研究结果以期为生态系统服务风险评估研究与管理应用提供理论支撑。     

生态系统服务需求、供给和消费研究进展

生态系统服务的持续供给是社会和自然可持续发展的基础,人类通过对生态系统服务的消费来满足需求和提高自身福祉。研究人类对生态系统服务的需求、消费,分析生态系统服务的供给与需求关系,对生态系统的管理、土地发展规划和资源的合理有效配置具有重要意义。首先分析了生态系统服务需求、供给和消费的内涵与特征,辨析了生态系统服务的有效需求和潜在需求、有效供给与潜在供给,进而提出了生态系统服务需求与供给研究框架,指出应研究生态系统服务供给和需求的空间关联以及生态系统服务需求弹性差异,进而因地制宜地调控生态系统服务供给使得生态系统服务效用最大化。梳理并比较了对生态系统服务供给和需求的量化指标和研究方法,包括基于土地利用和土地覆被的生态系统服务供需关系矩阵法、生态足迹法、公众参与法、模型计算法等。提出了未来的相关研究主要应从不同群体的需求弹性差异、跨学科与多源数据结合的需求定量评估方法、供需关系的多尺度分析、生态系统服务需求与人类福祉的耦合机制拓展等方面展开,为生态系统服务调控管理和社会的可持续发展提供切实可行的科学依据。     

基于供需分析的城市绿地空间布局优化——以南京市为例

城市绿地具有生态服务和社会服务两种主要功能,这两种服务水平的高低取决于供需关系.而绿地的供给和需求不仅指数量上,还包括空间分布,因此单纯的绿化指标或可达性水平都不能完全体现城市绿地的真实服务水平.本文从供需分析的角度,在ArcGIS平台下,利用均匀度指数和可达范围内人均享有公共绿地达标率考察了南京城市绿地的生态服务和社会服务在空间上的需求和供给,最终得出了南京市各区绿地系统的生态和社会服务水平.结果表明：东部地区绿地数量上富余,但缺乏高可达性公共绿地,社会服务水平中等;老城地区绿地缺乏,特征绿地分布不均匀,绿地生态和社会服务水平低;河西地区绿地社会服务水平高,但生态绿地较少且分布不均,生态服务水平低;南部、北部均存在绿地不足、分布不均、高可达性公共绿地少的问题.     

Mapping ecosystem services demand: A review of current research and future perspectives

Mapping the demand for ecosystem services (ES) has received increased attention in scientific research and is seen as a relevant tool to inform conservation planning, land use planning and management. Yet, there is a varying understanding of the concept of ES demand, which has implications on how and where ES demand is being mapped. In this paper we review the current conceptual understanding of ES demand, indicators to measure demand and the approaches used to quantify and map demand. We identified four distinct “demand types”, which relate to different ecosystem service categories. These demand types include demand expressed in terms of (1) risk reduction, (2) preferences and values, (3) direct use or (4) consumption of goods and services. Each of the demand types was linked to specific methods applied in the reviewed literature. We found that operationalization of ES demand in policy, planning and management requires a more consistent understanding and definition of ES demand, its drivers and its temporal dynamics. Furthermore, the impact of demands for multiple ecosystem services on land use change needs to be investigated. This will allow for the consideration of temporal and cross-level interactions between supply and demand of ecosystem services and its impacts in land use change modelling.     

基于服务流的石羊河流域水供给服务关键区域识别

生态系统服务功能关键区识别对于区域生态系统服务功能提升和可持续发展精准高效施策有重要意义。以石羊河流域为研究单元,在探究2005、2010、2015和2020年水供给服务的供给与使用时空特征的基础上,利用水供给服务流模型模拟得到水供给服务空间流动情况,利用ZONATION模型识别出2020年石羊河流域水供给服务关键区域。结果表明: 2005—2020年,石羊河流域水供给服务的供给表现出南高北低的空间格局与逐步衰退的总体趋势,水资源使用呈现出耕地和工业用地为主导的空间格局和波动下降的变化趋势,流域每年有约10.8%的区域在得到上游水资源补给后需水缺口得以回补。2020年,石羊河流域水供给服务关键区域总面积为14455 km²。我们建议应从供给-流转-消耗的角度,有针对性地修复和提升关键区域保水、促流和节水能力。     

Identifying and prioritising services in European terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

Ecosystems are multifunctional and provide humanity with a broad array of vital services. Effective management of services requires an improved evidence base, identifying the role of ecosystems in delivering multiple services, which can assist policy-makers in maintaining them. Here, information from the literature and scientific experts was used to systematically document the importance of services and identify trends in their use and status over time for the main terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in Europe. The results from this review show that intensively managed ecosystems contribute mostly to vital provisioning services (e.g. agro-ecosystems provide food via crops and livestock, and forests provide wood), while semi-natural ecosystems (e.g. grasslands and mountains) are key contributors of genetic resources and cultural services (e.g. aesthetic values and sense of place). The most recent European trends in human use of services show increases in demand for crops from agro-ecosystems, timber from forests, water flow regulation from rivers, wetlands and mountains, and recreation and ecotourism in most ecosystems, but decreases in livestock production, freshwater capture fisheries, wild foods and virtually all services associated with ecosystems which have considerably decreased in area (e.g. semi-natural grasslands). The condition of the majority of services show either a degraded or mixed status across Europe with the exception of recent enhancements in timber production in forests and mountains, freshwater provision, water/erosion/natural hazard regulation and recreation/ecotourism in mountains, and climate regulation in forests. Key gaps in knowledge were evident for certain services across all ecosystems, including the provision of biochemicals and natural medicines, genetic resources and the regulating services of seed dispersal, pest/disease regulation and invasion resistance.